Lapas attēli
PDF
ePub

to my satisfaction, I shall certainly derive will be consumed per hour (if the fire beence of an insoluble and unchangeable film advantage from it. By this, I flatter my-kept up day and night,) upon the hot air of silica, or highly silicated matter, upon its self, you will perceive that, although I have plan-and what the cost? What are the surface." See Mr. Faraday's Bakerian evinced some ignorance in this, I have been respective properties of furnace, boiler, Lecture on the manufacture of glass for opto school long enough to learn the proper pipes, &c., upon the other plans-the best tical purposes; Phil. Trans. 1830, pp. 46 grammatical relations of "I, Thou, He;" construction and cost? Are pipes of hot -50.-[Parke's Chem. Cat., by Brayley. and albeit, in this enumeration of advantages water, which are used to such advantage in (Arcana, &c., 1835.) I have committed the blunder of placing the warming houses in England, sufficient for "first person" last, the transposition is un- the purpose in a country where the winters important, as I am satisfied that you will not are so intensely cold as ours sometimes are? suspect me of such ignorance as not to know Yours, that most importance is to be attached to it. 4th Dec., 1835.

D*** F*****.

COMPOSITION AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF

DIFFERENT KINDS OF GLASS.

RUTTER'S HEAT PROCESS.

Dr. Daubeny brought before the meeting the economical employment of coal-tar in connexion with water as fuel, according to the method lately suggested by Mr. Rutter.* Mr. Minor,-Among the many advanA discussion then arose as to whether the tages to be derived by artists and scientific water in this case acts chemically or me men from such valuable journals as yours, Ordinary flint-glass, according to Mr. chanically, or both, in facilitating the comis one, of which they avail themselves so Faraday's analysis, consists, in 100 parts, bustion of the tar. Mr. Macintosh stated little, that they appear not fully to appreciate of silica 51.93, oxide of lead 33.28, potash that by repeated experiments he had found it. I allude to the facility they afford of 13.77, with minute portions of other sub-that coal-tar gave no more heat when burnobtaining information on any subject, by stances. A specimen of the same kind of ed than an equal weight of splint coal, the questions proposed to the readers of them. glass, manufactured for telescopes by the kind preferred, where a long continued heat In this way they might be made a good sub-late M. Guinand, yielded the same chemist, is required. Mr. Low also stated, that from stitute for the converzationes so common silica 44.3, oxide of lead 43.05, and potash long experience he could affirm, that the throughout Europe, and which are the means 11.75. Mr. Faraday found the specific use of water along with coal-tar was proof diffusing the lights of science so extensive- gravity of M. Guinand's glass to be about ductive of no benefit whatever, and that 3 ly; with this advantage: that a question 3.616, that of ordinary flint-glass 3.290, gallons, or 33 lbs. of coal-tar, give an equal inserted in them, instead of being put to a that of plate-glass 2.5257, and that of crown amount of heating effect, fully, to 40 lbs. of select few, would be propounded to all the glass 2.5448. coke, made from the Newcastle coal of learned in art or science throughout our Glass has usually been considered, with- the Hutton seam. From the discussion on widely spread territory. out much actual inquiry into the subject, to be this subject, which was protracted for some It is frequently the case that a person is strictly a chemical combination of its ingre- time, it appears to be established-1. That so situated that he may not know where to dients, and in all respects a very perfect ar- tar may be used as fuel, but that it does not look for information upon a particular sub- tificial compound. This, however, is far give much more heat than the same weight ject, although it may be abundant, or from being the truth, as will appear from of the best coal. 2. That when mixed easily accessible to those whose business the following facts. That the alkali in com- with water, it flows more easily through or reading may have lain in that path.-mon glass of all kinds is in a very imper-tubes, but does not appear to evolve more Such are frequently deterred from seek- fect state of combination, many circumstan-heat than when used alone.--[Jameson's ing information in this manner from the ces concur to evince. For example, Mr. Journal.] fear of exposing their ignorance; not re- Griffiths has shown, that if a small quantity flecting that the most knowing were once as either of flint-glass, or of plate-glass, be ignorant as themselves, and are indebted very finely pulverized in an agate mortar, chiefly to others for their present superiority. then placed upon a piece of turmeric paper Partly with the view of setting an example and moistened with a drop of pure water, in this respect, and partly for the purpose strong indications of free alkali will be obof obtaining information that I cannot readi-tained; and that if the pulverization be very Sir,-Permit me to offer to the public, ly find elsewhere, I shall propose a few perfect, the alkali can be detected in other through the medium of your widely extendquestions for insertion in your Mechan-kinds of glass, containing far smaller quan-ed Magazine, a hint or two from an old ics' Magazine and Farmer, giving your tities of it. This proves, that in whatever traveller, on the subject of stage-coach venreaders leave to credit me for as great ig-state of combination the alkali may be, it is tilation. Many others as well as myself norance as they please, if they will but an- still subject to the action of moisture. That have doubtless been annoyed by the aeroswer my questions; for which I promise flint-glass is by no means a compound re- phobia of many who travel by our public them my thanks, and a willingness to help sulting from very strong chemical affinities, them out of similar difficulties, if it should and that the oxide of lead which it contains lie in my way. is as imperfectly combined as the alkali, has been shown experimentally by Mr. Faraday, and also appears from the tarnish which is produced on its surface by exposure to sulphuretted vapors, owing to the combination

*Originally suggested by Capt. Morey, of NewHampshire.

From the London Mechanics' Magazine. VENTILATION OF STAGE-COACHES.

carriages, and the pertinacity of such persons in keeping the windows closed, for fear, as they say, of catching cold. Such Questions. Can a stream of water be persons have yet to learn that colds are used to as much advantage, or made to do more frequently the consequence of closely as much work, upon a vertical or tub-wheel confined air in a badly ventilated apartment, as upon a horizontal one; and if so, what than by free exposure to the wind and wea is the best construction for one, and the cost of sulphur with the lead. Glass which has ther. Some people seem to regard fresh of building it? Will the same quantity of long been exposed to the weather, frequent-air as poison, and do all in their power to water that is let, in a thin sheet, upon a hori- ly exhibits a beautiful iridescent appearance, exclude it; for my own part, I think it is zontal wheel, produce the same effect if let and is so far decayed, that it may be scratch- the only one of the numerous blessings of in solid column upon a vertical wheel undered with the nail. The glass of some bot- Providence that cannot be taken to excess. the same head and fall? tles of wine which had lain in a wet cellar The mode of ventilation I would suggest, What is the best and most economical near the Bank of London upwards of 150 is simply this, that the sashes of mails and mode of heating large buildings-by intro- years, examined by Mr. Brande, was soft, other stage-coaches, instead of being glazed, ducing heated air from a furnace-by pipes, and greatly corroded upon the surface, in as at present-the panel formed by a pane heated by steam, carried around the differ- consequence of the partial abstraction of its of glass-should be made with wire-gauze, ent rooms, or by similar pipes, filled with alkali. After reciting some of these facts, such as is now extensively in use for winboiling water? What is the size necessary and others of a similar description, Mr. dow-blinds. The vehicle would by this for a furnace to heat a room or a house of Faraday observes, "Glass may be con- means be amply ventilated without annoy any given dimensions—what should be the sidered rather as a solution of different sub-ance to any one by currents of air; and, in size of the flue for heating the whole house stances, one in another, than as a strong case of rain, the sashes might be kept up -what that for heating a particular room-chemical compound; and it owes its power without the choice of evils at present expe what the best construction for the furnace, of resisting [chemical] agents generally, to rienced, either to be wet through or suffo--and what quantity of fuel (wood or coal,) "its perfectly compact state, and the exist-cated. AN OLD TRAveller.

AGRICULTURE, &c.
From the Farmers' Register.

ON THE USE OF LIME AS MANURE.
BY M. PUVIS.

dressings of lime, vary with the consistence
of soils: they ought to be small on light and
sandy soils-and may, without ill conse-
quences, be heavy on clay soils.

and splits with drought, and is dissolved by the rains which succeed. This spontaneous loosening of the soil facilitates greatly the labor of the cultivator, the movement of the roots of the growing plants, and the reciprocal action of the atmosphere upon the drained well or ill by its texture. Small ap-soil, which remains open to its influence. plications to soils from which the super- All these new properties which the limed fluous water does not pass easily, are but soil has acquired, doubtless explain in part little felt; but if the dressing is heavy, and the fertilizing means which calcareous the ploughing deep, the lime aids the drain-agents bring to the soil: but we think it is ing, and adds to the healthy state of the soil. still necessary to seek some of these causes It may be conceived that the quantity of elsewhere. lime ought also to be increased with the annual quantity of rain that falls-because in proportion to that quantity ought the openness of the soil, and its fitness for draining, to be extended.

Nevertheless, the practices of the depart

The dose ought to vary according as the Translated for the Farmers' Register from the Annales soil is more or less pervious to water, or as de l'Agriculture Francaise, of 1835. Various qualities of Lime. 22. It is necessary for the farmer to know the nature of the lime which he uses. It may be pure, or mixed with silex, argil, or magnesia. Pure lime is the most economical, the most active, that which can produce 28. Lime, according to the recent discothe most effect in the least quantity. veries of German chemists, seizes in the Silicious limestone is used in greater soil the soluble humus or humic acid, takes quantity. The lime from it receives, as it from all other bases, and forms a comdoes the foregoing, the name of hot lime, pound but slightly soluble, which appears, and there is little difference in the applicaunder this form, eminently suitable to the tion, except that more of the latter is want-ments of the North, and of La Sarthe, seem wants of plants. But as this compound is to indicate the average dressing which suits not soluble in less than 2000 times its in general for land: thus the liming of the weight of water, while without the lime the North, which every ten or twelve years humus is soluble in a volume of water, less gives to the soil 40 hectolitres of lime to the by one-half, it would follow that, in consehectare, or a little more than three hectoli-quence of lime, the consumption of this subtres a year, agrees with that of La Sarthe, stance, and the productive power of the soil which gives eight or ten hectolitres every would, in like proportion, be better prethree years. The first plan gives at one served. Since the products of the soil indressing what the other distributes in four: crease much from the liming, while the as both make a like average, it may be humus is economised, since these products thence inferred that the earth demands an- borrow very little from the soil, which renually three hectolitres of lime to the hec- mains more fertile while thus yielding tare, [32 3 bushels to the acre,] to sustain greater products, it follows that the princiits fecundity. But as neither the soil nor pal action of the lime consists, at first, in the plants consume all this quantity of lime, augmenting, in the soil, and in the plants, it is to be believed, that at the end of a the means of drawing from the atmosphere greater or less length of time, the soil will the vegetable principles which they find have received enough to have no more need there, and next, in aiding, according to the of it for a certain space of time. need, the formation, in the soil or the plants, the substances which enter into the composition of plants, and which are not met with ready forined either in the atmosphere or in

ing.
The argillaceous lime is the same as the
hydraulic lime, or the poor lime of builders.
It appears that the first two kinds are more
favorable to forming grain, while the latter
favors more the growth of straw, grasses,
and leguminous crops. It is better for the
improvement of the soil, but a heavier dose
of it is required.

Magnesian lime acts very powerfully, but exhausts the soil if given in a large dose, or if it is not followed by alimentary manure in abundance. It has exhausted some districts in England, and entire provinces of America, and it is to this kind that seem due most of the complaints made against lime. By chemical processes the farmer may make himself sure of the nature of the lime which he uses.

Pure lime is commonly white, and is dissolved without any thing being left, in nitric or muriatic acid.

Silicious lime is often gray, and leaves a sandy residue, [after solution,] which is rough to the touch.

Argillaceous lime is obtained from stones which have a clayey odor and appearance: it is commonly yellow--and leaves, after the solution, a residue which is mostly an impalpable powder [et qui prend en masse,] which may be formed into a mass when

wet.

Magnesian lime is made from stone commonly colored brown or pale yellow; it forms a white cloud in nitric acid, diluted with water, and used in less quantity than enough for saturation.

Manner of treating Limed Lands.
25. After having, by liming, given the soil
a great productive power, having put it in
condition to produce the most valuable
crops, which are often also the most ex-
hausting, it is necessary to husband these
resources to give manure in return for the
products obtained-to employ as litter, and
not as food, the straw, now increased by
one-half-to raise grass crops from the soil
now fitted to bear them with advantage-in
short, to modify the general plan, and the
detail of the culture according to the new

powers of the soil, the prices of commodi
ties, and to local conveniences.

However, it is not necessary to hurry the
change of the rotation. Such an operation
is long, difficult, very expensive, and ought
not to be executed but with much delibera-
tion.

Effects of Lime on the Soil.

the soil.

The researches upon these various points are curious, important, interesting to practice as well as to science-and will lead us to explain, by means not yet appreciated, the action of lime upon vegetation.

Absorption by plants of the principles of the atmosphere, in the vegetation on uncultivated soils.

29. Saussure has concluded, from his ex

periments, that plants derive from the soil

about one-twentieth of their substance; of Boyle have proved that considerable veand the experiments of Van Helmont and getable products diminish very little the

mass of the soil. But this fact is still better proved by the observation of what passes in uncultivated soils.

Of second Limings. 23. When the limed field returns to the state in which it was before the operation, when the same weeds re-appear, and the Woodland that is cut over in regular succrops lower in product, it is time to renew cession [taillis] produces almost indefithe application of lime. It may be conceived 26. The effects of lime, although similar nitely, without being exhausted, and even that the time of the second liming depends to, are not identical with those produced becoming richer, the mass of vegetable proon the amount given in the first. When the by marl; and the qualities of soils limed, ducts which man gathers and removes, and dressing has been light, it is necessary, as differ in some points from those of natural of which the soil does not contain the prinis done by the Flemings and the Manceaux, calcareous soils. The grain from limed ciples. If, instead of woodland thus parto recommence entirely, or to the extent of land is rounder, firmer, gives less bran, tially and successively cut over, we consider the first dressing when it has been heavy, and more flour, than that from marled land upon the same soil a succession of forests, the next may be diminished by one-half the grain of marled land is more gray, gives and, for greater ease of estimation, resinous Besides, in this matter we should take more bran, and resembles that made upon forests, we find for the products of the gecounsel of the state of the soil, and of expe- clover, though it may be preferable to the neration of an age, forty to fifty thousand rience, because there are some lands which latter. The grain of a limed soil is more cubic feet to the hectare. This product is demand, and can use heavier doses of lime like that from land improved with drawn less than that of the resinous forests of many ashes. Limed land is less exposed to dan- parts of the country, and yet it is nearly ger from drought than marled land, on soils equal in bulk to half of the layer of the pro naturally calcareous. The crop is not sub-ductive soil itself: it represents an annual ject to be lodged at flowering time, when the increase of 24,000 weight of wood to the hectare-and which is produced not only sowing was done in dry earth. 27. În limed earth, weeds and insects dis-without impoverishing, but even while enappear. The earth, if too light, acquires riching the soil, by an enormous quantity of stiffness, and is lightened if too clayey. the droppings and remains of all kinds. The surface of the argilo-silicious soil, be- These products which do not come from fore close and whitish, is made friable, and the soil, are then drawn from the atmosbecomes reddish, as if rotten: it hardensphere, in which plants gather them by

than others.

Quantities applied. 24. The quantities of first as of second

The author has been deceived by exaggerated accounts of injury from liming in America. It is probable that wherever it occurred, it was caused by the usual ignorance of the action of lime: from erroneously considering it as alimentary, and directly fertilizing manure, and after applying it, wearing out the soil by continued grain crops. Such effects are spoken of by Bordley.-[ED. FAR. REG.]

per cent. of soluble salts: then the manure given to these soils contained 48, 96 lbs. 128 of saline substances, which being deducted from the preceding quantities, leave the four classes of soils stated 42, 183, 388, 774 lbs. of products in soluble salts, in two years of the rotation, gained solely by the absorbing forces of the soil and of plants.*

means of particular organs designed for there are required besides the general con- || of 90, 279, 516, 774 pounds. But, accord.
that use. These organs are the myriads dition of alternation of the species, frequent ing to Kirwan, barn yard manure yields 2
of leaves which large vegetables bear-tillage of the soil, and means to repair its
aerial roots, which gather these principles
either ready formed in the air, or which take
up there the elements, to combine them by
means of vegetable power. But these aerial
roots exert quite a different and superior
energy in gathering the constituent princi-
ples of plants in the atmosphere, to that of
the roots in the ground-since the former
furnish nearly the whole amount of the
vegetable mass, while the latter draw but
very little from the soil.

losses, that the culture may be productive,
and be continued. However, with these
new conditions, the force of absorption of
plants on the atmosphere still furnishes the
greater part of the vegetable principles in
soils not limed-and still more in limed soils.
To form a precise idea, we will take it in
the land of the writer, its culture and its 34. But, in the same soils, with the same
biennial rotation. As the same qualities of manures and the same tillage, by the addi-
soil are found elsewhere, as no particular tion to the thickness of the ploughed layer
circumstance increases or impairs its pro- of only one-thousandth part of lime, the
ducts, there would be found similar results, products, whether volatile or fixed, are in.
for the same qualities of soil, with a differ-creased in a striking manner: the soil of the
first named (or lowest) quality reaches the
product of the second-the second rises
one-half or more-and that of the best (of
the manured soils) increases a fourth.
Thus, our scale of product becomes
130,200,300 quintals-and deducting the
manure, 106,152,236 quintals, for the two
years of the rotation. The most fertile soil
(sol d'exception) cannot receive lime bene-
ficially because it contains it already; these
lands all belong to alluvions, where the cal-
careous principle has almost always been
found in greater or less proportion.

30. Plants may well find in the atmos-
phere the greater part of the volatile princi-
ples which compose them-the carbon, hy-ent culture. The inferences which we will
drogen, oxygen, and azote. But it is not so draw from ours, will apply then to all oth-
easily seen whence they obtain the fixed ers.
principles of which their ashes are com- On our soil of the third class, [or worst
posed. These products could not exist quality fallow returns every two years,
ready formed in the soil-for the saline with a biennial manuring of 120 quintals to
principles contained in the ashes of a gene. the hectare. This mass contains more
ration of great trees, which would amount than four-fifths of water, which should not
to more than 25,000 weight to the hectare, be counted as manure, and consequently
would have rendered the soil absolutely bar- the substance which serves for the repara-
ren, since, according to the experiments of tion of the soil is reduced to 24 quintals.
M. Lecoq of Clermont, the twentieth part We reap, in rye, straw, and buckwheat,
of this quantity is enough to make a soil ste-after the year of fallow, a dry weight of 40
rile. We would find a similar result in ac. to 50 quintals on an average. If it is sup-
cumulating the successive products of an posed that all the manure is consumed, or
acre of good meadow. It is then completely employed in forming vegetable substance,
proved that the saline principles of plants do still the soil would have furnished 18 to 20
not exist ready formed in the soil. They quintals more than it received, and which
are no more formed in the atmosphere, or excess would be due to the power of ab-
the analyses of chemists would have found sorption, whether of the soil, or of the
them there. However, as the intimate com- plants, on the atmosphere.
position of these substances is not yet per-
fectly known, their elements may exist in
the atmosphere, or even in the soil, among
the substances which compose them.

tion, or of the soil.

On land of middle quality, which yield a crop every year, with a double manuring, that is to say, of 48 quintals of dry manure, in two years, there is a product in wheat, maize, or potatoes, which amounts to from 12 to 15,000 weight, 120 to 150 quintals, of which two-thirds, or 80 quintals at least are

35. The product of fixed principles [as ashes] in the three classes of limed soils, would be 559,868,1290 pounds, and in soluble salts, 278.430,645 pounds; and deducting the soluble salts of the manure, the quantities would be 230,334,525. A light addition of lime has then doubled the force of absorption, and almost tripled the quantity of saline principles produced. One of the most remarkable effects of lime consists then, in making a soil produce a much greater proportion of saline principles: and if the experiments of M. Lecoq upon the efficacy of saline substances on vegetation are to be admitted, it would be in part to the phenomenon of their production that lime would owe its fertilizing effect.

Neither can it be said that these salts may be derived from the atomic dust which floats in the air; for this dust is composed of fragments organic and inorganic, carried espe-derived from absorption. cially to the plants themselves, and then, in On soils of good quality, with a manuring estimating this atomic matter at the most, of one-third more than the last, which is 36. It results from what precedes, that we will scarcely find in it the hundredth part equal to 64 quintals of the dry substance to salts are formed in the soil, or in vegetaof the saline substances contained in the the hectare, there are obtained of dry pro-bles: thus we see every day the nitrates of vegetable mass produced. We ought then ducts, in grain, straw, roots, or hay, double potash and of lime form under our eyes in to conclude that the saline substances of of the last, or nearly so, of which three-the soil, or elsewhere, without any thing inplants are formed by the powers of vegeta-fourths, or 10 quintals are due to the pow-dicating to us the origin of the potash which er of absorption. is contained. But potash itself again forms 31. In like manner as with the saline Lastly-upon the most fertile soils, (sols spontaneously in drawn ashes, according to principles, the lime and the phosphates of d'exception,) where manures are useless, the observations of the chemist Gellen. ashes ought to be due to the same forces, the product, often double, or at least half as We see salts also renewed in the artificial whether that the roots take up their unper- much more than the last mentioned, willnitre beds, with the aid of moisture and exceived elements in the soil, or that the leaves amount to 350 quintals to the hectare in two posure to the air. But it is the presence of gather them in the atmosphere. This con- years. This product would be, as in spon-lime that determines this formation more sequence results evidently from this fact-taneous vegetation, entirely due to absorp- particularly. The nitrates abound in the that plants grown in soils, of which the tion. ruins of demolished edifices; they are analysis shows neither lime nor phosphate, We would have then, to represent the formed in the walls and in all parts of contain them notwithstanding in large prohouses situated in damp places; they effloportion in their fixed principles-of which resce on the buildings of chalk in Cham[or of the ashes] they often compose half pagne; they are produced spontaneously in the ploughed lands of the kingdom of Murcia. This effect, which we see that the calcareous principle produces every where, we think it produces in all the soils to which it is given, and where meet the circumstances which favor the formation of nitrates, viz: humidity, vegetable mould, and exposure to the air. But, according to the experiments of M. Lecoq, and others, and the opinion which is established of the old agricultu rists, the nitrates are the most fertilizing salts. It would be then to their formation, which it promotes in the soil, that lime owes, in part, its effect on vegetation.

the mass.*

Absorption of plants, in vegetation on cul.

tivated soils.

32. Vegetation on uncultivated soils operates under conditions altogether different from those of the cultivated, so that the results receive modifications which it is impor

tant to examine.

products of two years, in quintals, in the
four classes of soil under consideration, the
progressive amounts of 42, 130, 240, 360;
or, by deducting from these products the
weight of the manure, we would have, to re-
present the power of absorption, the progres-
sion 18, 82, 176, 360 quintals. From this
is deduced, as the first conclusion, that,
supposing the plants have consumed and
annihilated all the substance of the manure
given, (which is beyond the truth,) plants
receive a much greater part of their sub-
stance from the atmosphere, than from the
soil; and that this power of drawing food
from the atmosphere increases with the
goodness of quality in soils.

Nature produces, and continues to produce, all the vegetable mass in spontaneous growth, without any other condition than the alternation and succession of the species. In vegetation on cultivated land, 33. The proportion of fixed substances, by bringing together the same individual or ashes, in agricultural products, is 43 lbs. plants which are to grow abundantly on a to the 1000, and consequently, in our four) soil and in a climate which, in most cases. classes of land, the quantity amounts to are not those which nature had designed, 180, 559, 1032, 1548 pounds. But the solusay on Calcareous Manures (Ch. VII.) where it is used *This fact is explained very differently by the Es-ble saline substances form at least half of

to sustain the doctrine of neutral soils.-[ED.]

these ashes: they are then produced in the
two years of the rotation, in the quantities

their saline matters, vary greatly-and the uniform *The proportions of ashes of different plants, and of proportions assumed above, are far from correct, even Saussure's table of the products of various vegetable as averages of unequal proportions. This will sufficiently appear from the following examples extracted from substances. (See Davy's Ag. Chem. Lec. III.)

[ocr errors]

principle, has found in their ashes, earths ||cessary to conclude from it, that the sub-
and salts which were neither in the seeds stances which analysis has found there,
sown, nor in the pulverized matters in are themselves, or would furnish, if decom-
which the plants grew.
posed, the elements of the saline substances,
although science may not yet have taught
us the means of reaching that end.

37. The foregoing proofs of the daily
formation in the soil, and by vegetable life,
of saline and earthy compounds, taken in
nature and on a great scale, are doubtless
sufficient: but they may still be supported Lastly-the analyses of Saussure, though
by the experiments and opinions of able showing more of the carbonate of lime in
men who have adopted the same system. the ashes of plants which grew on calcare- 39. The formation of lime, like that of
And first-in the experiment of Van Hel-ous soils, than on soils not calcareous, yet the saline principles necessary to plants, is
mont, in five years, a willow of five pounds nevertheless, they have formed more than an operation which employs all the forces of
grew to weigh 169, and had caused a loss a sixth of the ashes from vegetables on si-vegetation--and these forces, directed to
of only two ounces to the soil which bore it. licious soils-and Einhoff has found 65 per this formation, have no energy left to give
But the 164 pounds which the willow had cent. of lime in the ashes of pines grown on a great developement to plants: but when
taken contained five pounds of ashes, which silicious soil.* The labors of science then the vegetable finds the calcareous princi-
are due entirely to absorption, since the confirm what we have above established, ples already formed in the soil, it makes
leaves and the other droppings of five years, that plants, or the soil, form salts and use of them, and preserves all its forces to
which were not saved, would have given at earths.f
increase its own vigor and size.
least one pound of ashes, which makes up
for, besides, all that which, in spite of the
sheet of lead which covered the top of the
vessel in which the willow grew, it might
have received in the waterings, and from
other fortuitous circumstances. Boyle has
repeated and confirmed this experiment in
all its parts.

Names of Plants.

Ashes from 1000 parts dry.

Soluble Salts.

Earthy Phosphates.

Earthy Carbonates.

Silicia.

Metallic Oxides.

Loss.

38. The fertilizing effect of fallow, or It would then result, from all that has ploughing, of moving and working the soils been said, that lime modifies the texture of prove still more that all these circumstances the soil-makes it more friable--invigorates determine the formation of fertilizing prin-it-renders it more permeable-gives it the ciples, and probably of saline principles, in power to better resist moisture as well as all the parts of the soil which receive the dryness--that it produces in the soil the atmospheric influences. humate of lime which encloses a powerful means of fertility--that lime increases much the energy of the soil and of plants to draw from the atmosphere the volatile substances of which plants are composed, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and azole--that the med soil in furnishing to plants the lime which they need, relieves the soil and plants from employing their powers to produce it--and finally, that lime promotes the formation of fixed substances, earthy or saline, necessary to vegetables. All this whole of reciprocal action and reaction of lime, on the soil, plants and atmosphere, explains in a plau sible manner, its fortilizing properties. We would, consequently, have nearly arrived at the resolving of an important agricultural problem, upon which were accumulated all these doubts.

But salts are also formed in plants. The nitrate of potash, which takes the place of sugar in the beet--the oxalate of potash, Constituents of 100 parts of ashes. so abundant in sorrel--the carbonate of potash in fern, in the tops of potatoes, and in almost all vegetables in the first period of their life-the sulphate of potash in tobacco--the nitrate of potash in turnsole and in pellitory-prove, without reply, that vegetation forms salts, as it forms the proper juices of plants, since the soil contains the one kind no more than the other. But can we say where plants take the elements necessary for all these formations? They can take them only in the soil by means of their roots, or in the atmosphere--in the soil, which would itself take them in the atmosphere, in proportion to the consumption 43,25 12,75 0,25 32 0,5 12,25 of plants--or directly in the atmosphere by means of their leaves which would there gather these elements. And if the analyses of the soils, and of the atmosphere, show almost none of these elements, it will be ne

11

15 0,25 54

13,75

0,75 23

33 10 11,75 0,25 51
43 22,5 6,2 1 61,5 1 73
0,5 0,25 7,6
52 4,16 46,5 0,5 0,25 8,6
5,75 0,25 7,5 0,25 17,25

111

[blocks in formation]

13 47,16 44,5

Bran,

Plants of maize, 122 69

(Indian corn,) a

month before

[blocks in formation]

The amount of lime taken up by vegetation.

40. The ashes of plants from calcareous soils, or those which have been made so by manures, contain 30 per cent. of the carbonate and phosphate of lime, which, by taking off the crop is lost to the soil. But the product of limed land of middle quality, is during the two years of the course of crops, about 20,000 lbs. of dry products to the hectare, which contain a little less than a hectolitre of line in the calcareous compounds of the ashes. The vegetation has then used half a hectolitre a year. But we have shown that there was necessary, on an average, three hectolitres per hectare, each year.

Another por

It is presumed, from the context, that these silicious soils, were not the least calcareous.ED. F. R. + Van Helmont's experiment, cited first in the list 0,25 7,5 0,25 17 above, like M. Puvis' reasoning in general, furnishes 13 0,5 3,05 ample proof that most of the volatile parts of vegetables, and the greater part of their bulk, are drawn from the atmosphere-and they are equally defective in proving that earths and other fixed principles are thence derived, or are formed by the power of vege table life Distilled water is not entirely fee from earthy matter, and if it had been used for watering the willow, it would in five years have given some considerable part of the five pounds of solid matter in Vegetation then does not take the ashes. But as we are not told that it was either distilled or rain water, it may be inferred that the up, in nature, but a sixth of the lime which comparatively impure water of a fountai or stream, is given profitably to the soil; the other was used for watering the plant, and which would five-sixths are lost, are carried away by the more than suffice in so long a time, to convey the water, descend to the lower beds of earth, whole increase of earthy and saline matter. The experiments of Lampadius and Shrader are liable to the are combined, or serve to form other comLampadius, in different isolated compart-am objection-and the former to this in addition-pounds, perhaps even the saline compounds, ments, some filled with alumine, others that his earths were deemed absolutely pure, when, of which we have seen that lime so powerwith silex, others with [carbonate of] lime, slight admixture of other kinds with each, would furin all probability, they were not so-and that a very fully favors the formation. all pure, has made to grow plants, of which,nish the minute quantity that a small plant could take tion, also, without doubt, remains in the the burning has yielded to analysis like reup during its short and feeble existence un fer the cir-soil, and serves to form this reserve, which sults, and which, consequently, contained cumstances stated. The results stated of the experi- in the end dispenses, for many years, with earths which were not in the soils which and probably are, entirely correct-but they are fully ments of Braconnot, Saussure and Eiahoff, may be, the repetition of liming. explained by the doctrine of neutral soils, and need no Saussure, in establishing that plants do support from, and give none to our author's doctrine not take in the soil more than a twentieth of the formation of lime by vegetable power. of their substance, in extract of mould and in this, his main and most labored position, and that But though deeming M. Puvis altogether wrong in carbonic acid, has necessarily established, the proofs cited above, as well as some others in the by the same means, that almost the whole preceding section, are of no worth, still these pages amount of fixed principles do not proceedle. He places in a strong point of view the important which present his theory, contain what is of more vaBraconnot has analyzed lichens, which truth that the atmosphere is the great treasury of nu ture, from which nature doubles and triples the amount: contained more than half their weight of of all the small portions given to the earth by the in oxalate of lime-and he has observed oth-ustry of man. The author's scale of actual products ers covered with crusts of carbonate of from different grades of soil is also interesting. It lime, when there was none of this earth in sustains the position assumed in the Essay on Calea the neighborhood. |reous Manures, that the worst soils are liemd (or made calcareous) to most profit-and that alimentary ma Shrader, in burning plants grown in sub-nures, when needed, are most productive on the best stances which did not contain any earthy soils.-[ED. FAR. REG.

[blocks in formation]

crops, they have been alternated with green ||tions of summer, are unhealthy: thus also, || ed in the country even where an active cnlcrops and that manure has been given in (for a great and unhappy example,) the ture draws good products from the imperproportion to the products taken off-the argilo-cilicious plateaux, whenever the meable argilo-silicious soil. prudent cultivator then sees continue the closeness of the subsoil does not let the new fecundity which the lime has brought, water pass through, produce, in dry years, without the soil showing any sign of ex- at the close of summer, emanations which haustion. No where has there been com-attack the health of the inhabitants. plaint made of argillaceous soils being dam- 43. But this unhappy effect appears al. aged by lime; and the productiveness of most no where in calcereous regions: the light soils is sustained, in every case that margins of lakes and ponds there situated the lime was used in compost. do not produce the same unhealthiness, and even the marshy grounds there are less un

In America, where the lime of oyster shells has taken the place of that of mag-healthy. nesian limestone, the complaints of the exhausting effects of lime have ceased. Healthiness given to the soil and to the

country by calcareous agents.*

42. The unhealthines of a country is not caused by the accumulation of water, nor from soil being covered by water. Places on the borders of water do not become sickly but when the water has quitted some part of the surface which it previously overflowed, and the summer's sun heats the uncovered soil, and causes the decomposition of the remains of all kinds of matter left by the water, and contained in the upper layers of the soil. Thus, ponds are not unhealthy but when drought, by lowering the waters, leaves naked extensive margins, to be acted on by the sun and air. In rainy years, fevers on the borders of ponds

are rare.

The waters which spring out of, or run over calcareous beds, are always healthy to drink. The borers of Artesian wells are

anxious that the water which they obtain, to be good, may come out of the calcareous strata which they go through. When the waters which hold carbonate of lime in solution in carbonic acid* run over the surface, they give health to the meadows, in changing the nature and quantity of the products.

Linnæus thought that the unhealthiness of most countries depended on the nature of the water, and was owing to the argillaceous particles which they contain; now these argillaceous particles are always precipitated by the calcareous compounds. For this reason, the waters which stand up on, or run over marl, or calcareous rock, are almost always Impid and clear, because the argillaceous particles have been preciEpidemic diseases most often arise on pitated by the effect of the solution in the the borders of marshes laid dry-in the water of the calcareous principle, which is neighborhood of mud thrown out of ditches itself dissolved by an excess of carbonic acid. or pits-and in the course of bringing new We are not far from believing then, that land into cultivation, where the ploughed throwing rich marl, or limestone, into a soil is for the first time exposed to the sum- well of muddy and brackish water, might mer's sun. In the interior of Rome, the have the effect, in part at least, of clearing vineyards, the gardens are remarkably un-it, and making it healthy to drink. This healthy-while the sickliness disappears where the emanations from the soil are prevented by buildings. In the Pontine marshes, they cover the dried parts with water to arrest the danger of their effluvia. It is then from the soil, and not from the waters at its surface, that insalubrious emanations proceed. Waters placed on the surface, always in motion, agitated by every wind, are not altered in quality, and do not become unhealthy but whenever they are contained in some place without power to receive exterior influences, or to have motion, they are altered in their odor, taste, and consequently injured in relation to health.

Whenever water then, without covering the soil, penetrates the upper layer without being able to run through the subsoil, it remains without motion, and stagnant, within the soil-is changed by the summer's sun, serves to hasten the putrefaction of the broken down vegetable remains in or on the mould, and the exhalations from the ground become unhealthy. Thus are all drained marshes, of which the surface only is dry, while the water still penetrates the subsoil-thus, all the margins of rivers which have been covered by recent inunda

*There was no position in the Essay on Calcareous

Manures which its author assumed with so much hesitation as the agency of those manures in removing doubt of the truth of the position-but because of its very high importance, and its entire novelty-its being then sustained but by few known facts furnishing direct evidence, and by no known authority whatever of earlier writers. It is therefore the more gratifying| to find in the work now presented, that about the same time, another and far remote investigator of the same subject, by a different course of reasoning, and by different proofs, had arrived at precisely the same conclusion-and that he maintains even more generally

causes of disease. That hesitation did not arise from

than the former work, the important and sure effects of calcareous manures in rendering a country more healthy.-ED. FAR. REG.]

[ocr errors]

remedy, if it should not be as useful as we think, at least could not produce any injury. Lime, in all its combinations, destroys the miasmata dangerous to life. Its chioride annihilates all bad odors, arrests putrefaction, and in short, has subjected the plague of Egypt to the skill and courage of Pariset. The white wash of lime upon infected buildings, upon the walls and mangers of stables, is regarded as serving to destroy the contagious miasmata of epidemic and epizootic diseases.

44. To extend the great benefit of healthinese to the whole of a country, it is no doubt necessary that the whole coutry should receive the health-giving agent. However, on every farm, in proportion as timing is extended over its surface, the chances of disease will be seen to diminish

and the healthiness of the country will keep pace with the progress of its fertility. Result of the use of improving manures on

the soil of France in general. Three-fourths of the whole territory of France, to be rendered fruitful, have need of calcareous agents. If the third of this extent has already received them, (which we believe is above the truth,) upon the other two-thirds, or the half of the whole, the agricultural products, by this operation, would be increased by one-half or more, or one-fifth of the total amount. But agriculture, in enriching itself will increase its power, its capital, and its population, and will naturally carry its exuberant forces, its energy and activity to operate on the greater part of the 7,000,000 of hectares of land now [en friche] untilled, waste, and without product. By bringing these lands into cultivation and fertilizing them by liming or by paring and burning the surface, they would be made to yield, at least, one-sixth of the total product. The gross product of the French soil, then increased by a third or more, might give employment and sustenance to a population also onethird greater than France now possesses; and this revolution due successively to the tillage of the soil, to annual improvements keeping pace with the progressive increase of crops, would be insensible. The state would grow in force, in vigor, in wealth, in an active and moral population, which would be devoted to peace, and to the country, because it would belong to this new and meliorated soil. And this great result would be owing simply to applying calcareous manures to the extent of the soils of France which require them!

46. Upon our extent of 54,000,000 of hectares, our population increased to 44,000,000, would have for each, one hectare and a Lime destroys the plants of humid and quarter, and would be less confined than marshy soils, and makes spring those the 24,000,000 of inhabitants of the English suitable to better soils: then its effect is to soil, who have only one hectare to the head; give healthines or vigor to the soil, to dry and yet our soil is at least as good, and it is it, and make it more mellow and permeable. more favored by climate. And then our The water then is no longer without mo- neighbors consume in their food, at least a tion, and altered consequently in its condi-fourth or fifth of meat, while only one-fif tion. The limed soil then, to the depth it is teenth of the food of our population consists ploughed, ought to change the nature of its of meat; and as there is required twelve or emanations, as well as its products: and fifteen times the space to produce meat as if the lower strata or subsoil, send up ema-bread, it follows that twice the extent of nations, these effluvia in passing through soil is necessary to support an Englishman the improved layers of soil, where the calcareous agent is always at work, and developing all its affinities, ought also to be modified, and take the character of those of the upper bed. The limed soil then, it would seem, ought to be made healthy.

as a Frenchman. Hence it results, that with an increase of one-third, our popula tion would still have a large surplus pro. duct which would not exist in England, with an equal increase of population and equal increase of products of agriculture.

But what we maintain here by induction, But this prosperity of the country, (yet by reasoning, is fortunately a fact of exten- far distant, but towards which however, we sive experience. Among all the countries will be advanced daily,) would be still much in which lime has carried and established less than in the department of the North, fertility, there is not cited, that I know of, where a hectare nearly supports two inhaa single one where intermittent.fevers pre-bitants. And yet they have more than a vail-while that they have not disappear-sixth of their sol in woods, marshes, or

*As in limestone water, lime with the greatest proportion with which it can combine of carbonic acid, (forming super-carbonate of lime,) is soluble in water. The excess of acid is lost by heat, by exposure to air, &c., and then the lime is in form of carbonate-and being insoluble in water, falls separate to the bottom. -[ED. FAR. REG.]

unproductive lands: they have besides, another sixth, and of their best ground, in crops of commerce, which consume a great part of their manure, and which are exported almost entirely. This prodigious result is, without doubt, owing in part to a greater extent of good soil than is found elsewhere;

« iepriekšējāTurpināt »