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on any thing like equal terms, either as it|| 100se shell rock, which is generally of easy To THE HON. THE COMMON COUNCIL OF regards the cost of construction or expense excavation. On that portion of the line of transportation.

The section of country between Auburn and Syracuse is probably as unfavorable for effecting a good location for a Railroad, as any equal portion of the route between Albany and Buffalo. The streams, which are numerous, all run northerly. The ridges and valleys of course lie in the same direction. This peculiar formation of the country, as it precluded the possibility of following the course of the valleys, (the direction of the Railroad being nearly east and west,) added much to the difficulty of fixing upon the best location. These difficulties, it is believed, have all been surmounted in a manner to afford a Railroad which, when completed, will bear a favorable comparison with other portions of the line from Albany to Buffalo.

THE CITY OF BUFFALO. Your Committee, to whom was referred located upon the side hill, along the valley the annexed petition,* respectfully report, of the Nine Mile Creek for a distance of four That, through the attention of the Hon. miles, Gypsum, or Plaster of Paris, is found Geo. P. Barker, they have procured from the in the excavation,in considerable quantities. Comptrollers department, at Albany, an ofNearly all the solid rock which is required ficial copy of the dates at which the Erie Canal has been opened and navigated each to be excavated in forming the road bed, ap- spring at Buffalo and Albany, for the last pears thus far to be of that material. This nine years, a copy of which will be found is deemed very favorable, as the value of hereto annexed. Your Committe are also the plaster, if disposed of at the usual pri- indebted to the politeness of Gen. H. B. Potter, for an accurate statement, (in the ces, will cover the cost of its excavation. correctness of which your committee have The cost of constructing the road cannot the most implicit confidence,) of the dates now be correctly stated. The general rise at which Lake Erie has been navigable, and in the value of labor, Railroad iron, provis-actually navigated, to and from the port of ions, &c., which has taken place during the Buffalo, each spring, during the last nine past winter, will have a tendency to enhance years, all which will be found exhibited in the annexed statistical table, the whole of the expense. which your committe trust will be found accurate and satisfactory—

From the facts before me, it is probable that the cost of grading, masonry, &c., for a double track, together with that of the superstructure complete for a single track, will not exceed 12 or 15 thousand dollars per mile.

The descent upon the Railroad being towards the east at a nearly uniform rate of 10 feet per mile, will favor the expense of transIt is contemplated to form the road bed portation, the preponderance of the trade being in that direction. If locomotive steam in a substantial and permanent manner. engines of the most improved description

Lime stone is the material principally are used, similar to the best recently con-used in the various structures, and is obstructed for the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-tained in any quantity, in the vicinity of road Company, a single engine, will be all parts of the line, of the best quality.— competent to convey from Auburn to Syra- The bridges are few in number, and of very cuse in the space of two hours, a nett load limited space.

amount.

of 150 tons, and to return in the same time. The total value of perishable material with a nett load of about one third of that used in forming the road bed, will not prob. ably exceed for the whole road the sum of $3500.. This, it is believed, will have an important and favorable influence in the cost of repairs.

The difference between the average and maximum inclination of the Railroad being but 194 feet, will not exceed (provided a suitable reduction is made in the speed on the heavier grades) the range of the power of the best engines.

In the location of the Railroad, throughout its whole extent, particular regard was had to the prospect of its becoming a por. tion of the great line of rail way from Albany to Buffalo, and all considerations of a minor and merely local character were made to yield to this one paramount object.

Board of Directors in this respect, the pub-
lic will hereafter be greatly indebted.

This difference is no greater than upon the Utica and Schenectady Railroad, and is much less than the same difference on on the Camden and Amboy, New Castle and Frenchtown, and Providence and Bos-To the liberal and enlightened views of the ton Railroads. These roads have their extremes nearly on the same level. The maximum difference on the first is 45 feet, on the second 30 feet, and on the last 37 feet per mile, the latter extending 5 miles. It is less, likewise, than the same difference on that part of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad between Baltimore and the Parr ridge.

The road will be completed and may be put in operation, it is confidently believed, if no unexpected difficulties occur, previous to the month of September of next year, in time for the fall business.

Respectfully submitted,

E. F. JOHNSON, Chief Engineer.
Auburn, April, 1836.

The average inclination from Auburn to
Syracuse, is the same with what is usually
termed the level portion of the Mohawk and
Hudson Railroad, situated between the in-ed us with the following statement in rela-

clined planes. The greatest departure of the grade line in the latter case, from a line of uniform inclination, is 50 feet. Upon the Auburn and Syracuse road it does not exceed, as already stated, 24 feet.

We are obliged to the friend who furnish

tion to the opening of Buffalo Harbor and
the Erie Canal.

To the Editor of the Rail Road Journal.

SIR-I enclose you a tabular statement of the periods of opening the canal for the ten previous years, and also of Lake Erie. You will confer a favor by inserting the same in your valuable journal for future Yours, &c.

The ground on a very considerable portion of the line of the Auburn and Syracuse Railroad is exceedingly well adapted for forming a firm and substantial road, being composed principally of gravel and loam, and D. K. XOR,

reference.

M.

strictly

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Albany; and in four instances, 1829, 1830, || Brighton Railway, will have an area of at
1832, and 1834, an average of four days ear- least six hundred feet.
lier each spring. Thus showing conclu-
sively, that property destined east, via. the
Erie Canal, is not detained at Buffalo,
though the "ice" may obstruct Canal navi-
gation at Albany to a later period, also show-
ing, that for the last nine years, Lake Erie
has been navigable and actually navigated
to and from Buffalo in six instances, to wit:
1827, 1928, 1850, 1832, 1833, and 1834, from
eight to nineteen days earlier than property
could have arrived at this city from the city
of Albany, via. the Erie Canal, and in three
instances, viz. 1829, 1831, and 1835, prop.
erty could have arrived at this city from Al-
bany, via. the Erie Canal from three to fif.
teen days earlier than Lake Erie was nav-
igable from this Harbor, giving in the ag-
gregate on the ice" question an average
advantage within the said nine years,
of four and 2-9 days each spring, in fa-
vor of Lake navigation to and from Buffa.
lo, over the Erie Canal arrivals from Alba-
ny. It will be observed by referring to the
statistical table, that 8 days time is allowed
for the first arrival of canal boats at this port
from Albany on the opening of the canal in
the spring, which is withing the average as
it is well known that from one to two days
more time is required in navigating the ca-
nal on the first opening of navigation, than is
the case after the towing paths and banks
become settled, and farther your committee
have not made any estimate of the delays
incident upon breaches or obstructions in
the canal, which in several instances have
occurred previous to the first spring arrivals
of boats at this place from Albany, all which
is respectfully submitted. For the Com-
mitte,

W. F. PORTER TAYLOR, Ch'n. Feb. 26, 1836.

RAILWAY TUNNELS.

(From Mr. Gibb's Report upon the several proposed

Lines for a Brighton Railway)

mile.

some space in your Magazine, and my object in now writing to you is to call the atIn order to explain to what extent the air tention of railway companies and engineers in a tunnel is contaminated by a locomo- (particularly those of the continent of Eutive engine passing through it, let us sup-rope and America,) to a wrought-iron pepose a tunnel one mile in length to be tra- destal or chair, patented by Harry Scrivner, versed by a locomotive engine, and its train Esq., a gentleman connected with the Britof a gross weight of one hundred tons. ish Iron Company. That a wrought-iron The experience of the Liverpool and Man-chair must be better than a cast-iron one, chester Railway has shown that the average no one, I presume, will deny. Why else consumption of coke is considerably less adopt the wrought-iron rail in preference to than half a pound per ton for each mile it the cast-iron one? It cannot be simply is carried on a railway; but taking the con- owing to its extra length, and consequently sumption at half a pound, the whole weight causing fewer joints in a railway. The of one hundred tons will require the con- superiority of wrought-iron chairs to cast sumption of 50 lbs. of coke. It may be ones, must be to say the least, in proportion calculated that every 10 lbs. of coke will as wrought-iron is superior to cast-iron.evaporate a cubic foot of water; so that What the comparative strength of cast and the whole 50 lbs. will convert into steam 5 wrought-iron is, I cannot exactly say, as it cubic feet of water in the distance of 1 differs according to quality. But suppose Now to convert into steam 1 cubic a wrought-iron chair of 10lbs. weight to foot of water, requires 1,950, or say 2,000 be equal in strength to a cast-iron one 20 cubic feet of air, then 5 feet of water will lbs., and the cost to be the same in manuof course require 10,000 feet; and this will facture, the advantage to the purchaser is be the whole amount of contaminated air one-half in the conveying of the chairs from in one mile in length of tunnel. To deter- the iron-works to the place of destination; mine the proportion of such an amount of so that if a double railway one hundred foul air, and the whole air contained in the miles in length take in cast-iron chairs of tunnel, we may take for example a mode-20 lbs. each, 6,775 tons, it will take, in wrought-iron chairs of 10 lbs. each, but rate sized tunnel 30 feet high, and having 3,387 tons 10 cwt.; which is such a an area of 800 feet. One mile in length of such a tunnel will contain 4,224,000 cubic saving in carriage, as one would think feet; hence the contaminated air will bear the purchaser for the foreign market. would not be lost sight of,-especially by to the whole quantity in the tunnel the ratio other advantage of the wrought-iron chair of 10,000 to 4,224,000; or it will be as 1 to the cast-iron one is its durability. As to 422. It will scarcely after this appear the oxydizing influence of the atmosphere that any valid objection to tunnels, to assert that an injurious effect must result from the contaminated air, when we find that the quantity of this description of air, produced by the passing of the whole train, will be no more than 2 part of the whole quantity

in the tunnel.

422

have been so forcibly dwelt upon by those
who affect to perceive the most unhappy
consequences from their adoption.-[Lon-
don Mechanics' Magazine.]

From the London Mechanics' Magazine.
SCRIVNER'S WROUGHT-IRON RAILWAY
CHAIRS.

An

not so great on wrought-iron, as castwith that of the other, must be in the ratio iron, the durability of the one, compared of corrosive liability.

Now, sir, as utility and economy must always be two leading considerations in all chair must, in point of saving, alone have railway undertakings, the wrought-iron ample recommendation.

Yours truly,

A SUBSCRIBER.

ADHESION ON RAILWAYS.

At a meeting of the institution of Civil Engineers (reported in the Athenæum) it is stated that a great increase in the power of the engines in drawing loads after them arose from the use of wrought iron rails, and wheels hooped with wrought-iron, instead of cast. The Planet engine was 150 tons. instanced weighing 74 tons, and drawing weight between the engine and the load, The proportion or ordinary might be called 1 to 7, though 1 to 11 was a fair representation of power of traction as a maximum in favorable weather on a level. Case-hardened iron,had been proposed for the rails, but had been abandoned ed perfectly at first, losing their effect by in consequence of the chills, which answerthe repetition of the process, so that the case hardening was not equally effected.

An objection has been made generally Let us then venture to hope, that any to all tunnels-namely, that the air con- prejudices which may now exist against the tained in them will be so contaminated by construction of tunnels upon railways will the noxious gas produced by the locomo-be dispelled, when we find that no injurious tive engines in passing through them, as to consequences will ever result from the foul render it unfit for respiration. Whether air, or any other of the numerous evils which this objection has ever been advanced, or at all supported, by any scientific man possessing sufficient chemical knowledge to enable him to judge correctly on the subject, is doubtful. The probability, however, is, that the fear of any injurious effects from foul air has originated in those who have witnessed the effects produced by steam engines in passing through the small SIR-In reading your interesting and tunnels on some of our canals; and if they valuable miscellany, I have been much grathave for a moment imagined that any sim-ified and amused with the different articles ilarity will be found in the effects in the on railways; it seems as though the scientwo cases, their fears are quite justifiable. tific and mechanical world were all intent The tunnels on canals are commonly con- on the subject, for it appears to be calling structed of such limited dimensions, that it forth all the learning of the one and ingewould be highly dangerous to attempt the nuity of the other; and it must be allowed same application of steam power as will be to be a subject of such importance, that necessary on a railway; for instance, in science and art cannot, at this time be more the tunnel constructed by Mr. Telford on usefully employed on any other. That the Hare Castle Canal, the area above the there is and will be difference of opinion on water in the canal is only about one hun- the subject is no more than is to be expectNEW RAILWAY LOCOMOTINE. -.A locomotive dred feet; and even the Thames and Med-ed; but amidst all the plans and sugges-new principle, is nearly completed for the carriage, having a very simple engine on a way in transverse dimensions, perhaps the tions that are, or may be advanced, the de- Greenwich Railway Company. The frame largest canal tunnel in England, has only scriminating and skilful engineer will know is constructed so that the wheels cannot dean area of four hundred and fifty feet; while what to choose and what to reject. The viate from the rails at any speed, and that the smallest tunnel contemplated on the subject of rails and chairs, has occupied their revolving motion can be instantly

To the Editor of the Mechanics' Magazine.

1083:

193×10

changed to a sliding motion; thus the train ||of the circumference of a circle to its dibeing powerfully retarded by friction, is ameter=3.1415926-S-the height from will be 6.043 times its weight, for speedily brought to rest, and the risk of accidents to the spectators and passengers on which a body falls in one second=193 inch-6.043. the viaduct is materially diminished.-es. Since the body by supposition revolves These rules suppose the body to be re[Morning Herald.] once a second, its velocity per second is duced to a point, and that the diameter of DC; and by the last rule, this is acquir- the circle described by that point, is known. ed in falling through D-4 under the action This imaginary point is not the centre of of the centrifugal force, which by supposi-gravity of the body. The rules for ascertaining it, in all cases, with mathematical precision, are exceedingly complex, and not within the design of your magazine; but with your leave, Mr. Editor, I will in some future communication, give the methods of ascertaining it in the simpler cases, and a method of approximation sufficient for all practical purposes. Respectfully yours,

D

Sir,-"When a heavy body is made to tion is gravity. Now by the laws of gravirevolve in a circle, it has a tendency to flyty, a body falling through S, would acquire from the centre, and this tendency is called a velccity of 25 per second, and the velocity its centrifugal force. An ounce ball attach-acquired is in proportion to the square root ed to a string and whirled around horizon. of the space fallen through, therefore D. C tally, in the manner of a sling, may easily be made to break the string, even though : 25::✓✓S, squaring all the terms, it is strong enough to sustain the weight of four or five ounces; that is to say, the cen. trifugal force may easily be made to exceed four or five times the weight of the ball. The fundamental rule for comparing this force under different circumstances, is the following:

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D'

we have D2. C2: 4S2: :: S; by mul-
tiplying extremes and means, we get S.
D. C-S. D; dividing by D.S. C2 gives
19.554 inches, the

D=

S 193
Ca 3.14159262
diameter required.

In the comparison of bodies revolving in By comparing this circle with the one whose diameter is 19.554, according to the circles with an uniform velocity, the follow-third rule above stated, we have G: F: ing rules hold good, and are easily deducible from the preceding one.

2. If the weight and velocity of the bodies and diameter of the circles be the same, the force is the same in all points of the circle. 3. The centrifugal force is in proportion to the weight of the body multipled by the diameter of the circle, and divided by the square of the periodical time: that is to say, the square of the time taken to make one revolution.

4. The centrifugal force is in proportion to the weight of the body, multiplied by the diameter of the circle, multiplied into the square of the number of revolutions made in a given time.

19.554 D
12 t

:

G.D
2
t

multiply extremes and means,

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Fx 19.554, and since we make

LOWELL, MASSACHUSETTS.
No. II.

BY HENRY COLMAN.

GYAS.

Having ascertained this circle, let D= It is exceedingly curious and interesting diameter of any other circle in inches-t— time of the body's revolution in that circle to observe how closely associated are all the G-force of gravity-to find F, the centri-interests of society, interlocking each other in every direction, like a thickly woven web, fugal force of the body. of the most complicated texture, and united by a common, reciprocal, and indissoluble sired that men could better understand this dependence. How much it were to be deand see that the just prosperity of one branch of business is in a degree the prosperity of all; that there can in fact be no long and permanent monopoly of the great advantatages of social life; that success and prosperity in any particular department of business have a tendency to diffuse themselves like the great elements of nature; and that 6. Divide the diameter expressed in inch- connexions, fluctuations, and ever varying the gains of any one man in the various es by 19.554 times the square of the peri-relations of society, become ultimately the odical time expressed in seconds, and the gains of all. quotient will be the centrifugal force, gravity being one. For example, if a body revolve once in two seconds, in a circle whose diameter is eight feet, its centrifugal force

and
gravity the unit of force, G=1, therefore
D
2x19.554 =F, which expressed in words
gives the following rule.

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There have been times, when men, under the influence of mistaken views, possibly, in some cases, under the influence of corrupt motives, have endeavored to excite animosities and prejudices among the commercial, manufacturing, and agricultural classes and interests. Now nothing could be more wrong in respect to each of them; and By comparing the centrifugal forces in though government may sometimes adopt a these two circles, according to the fourth partial policy, an unjust system of favoritrule above stated, we have the following: ism, granting peculiar privileges to some, 7. Multiply the diameter of the circle in to the prejudice or exclusion of other interinches, by the square of the number of revo-ests, yet it must be admitted as a great and By the assistance of this principle, we lutions per second, and divide the product incontrovertible principle, extending itself through every department of society,through can easily measure the centrifugal force of by 19.554, and the quotient will be the cenall its multiplied ramifications, that the welbodies, provided we assume some known trifugal force, gravity being one. For ex-fare of one part is the welfare of all; the force as the unit of force, as in measuring ample, if a body revolve three times per prosperity enjoyed by any one portion, nedistance we assume some known unit of second in a circle of ten feet diameter, its cessarily reflects its light upon the rest; and length, a foot or a yard. The most conve- centrifugal force will be 55.23 times its that any long continued and exclusive apnient standard we can adopt, is the force of propriation of any of the great advantages gravity at the earth's surface, because it is weight, for 19.554 of life is no more possible than a continued perfectly well known, and is in proportion first rule above stated, we adduce the fol- and exclusive appropriation of light, or air, or water.

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to the weight or inertia of the body, as cen. lowing:
trifugal force also is. It is required, then, 8. Divide the square of the number of
to find the diameter of the circle in which a inches which the revolving body passes
body must revolve once in a second, in or- through in a second, by 193 times the diam-
der that its centrifugal force may be just eter in inches. Thus, if a body revolve, in
equal to gravity at the earth's surface. a circle of ten inches diameter, at the rate
diameter required, Cthe ratio of nine feet a second, its centrifugal force

Let D

The mutual and reciprocal benefits to be and from Manufactures by Agriculture,may derived from Agriculture by Manufactures, be illustrated by a recurrence to some of the statistical details of some of the Lowell Manufactures, as published in a tabular sheet on the 1st of January, 1888. We

shall recur to them by way of illustration, premising only that our remarks must be brief; and that we are without the means of illustrating the truths with which we set out, so fully in detail,as we otherwise might have done.

superintendence of a child. which human power, singly applied, could ry saves; but this does not necessarily folOperations lay claim to all this time, which machinenever effect, are here daily and hourly ef low; for wages are not reduced; and though fected by the simple revolution of a wheel the means of subsistence are increased the or the pressure of a lever; and all this, with power of procuring it is proportionally exan exactness and precision absolutely per- tended; and unless men choose voluntariThe Manufactures at Lowell then, have fect, I may properly add, sublime. Of the ly to surrender their time, they can save collected a population of nearly twenty increased value given by manufactures to much for rational enjoyment and improvethousand in a spot where formerly there the raw material, and of the perfection to ment. I know, too, that there are those, were not twenty individuals, all of whom which the art is carried, I may be allowed who are disposed to tax human strength to are more or less concerned in, and all of to quote an example from Dr. Ure, in his its utmost limits under the pretence that them to a great degree entirely dependent treatise on the cotton manufacture. Such, men would abuse their liberty if they had on, the success of these Manufactures for he says, is the exquisite nature of the ma more leisure. Many, undoubtly, would emplopment, subsistence, and comfort. They chinery in Manchester, England, that aabuse it; but this is not a necessary conse are withdrawn from other pursuits, many of pound of cotton is capable of being spun quence of such a relaxation; and while lithem from Agricultural labor, and they are into 350 hanks; in which case, the yarn braries, public lectures, books of general and to be supported by the products of Agricul- produced by it would extend 294,000 yards, useful knowledge, are so much multiplied, ture; for bread and meat must come from or 167 miles; and that which, in a raw and means of improving, and innocent the earth. Being withdrawn from Agri-state, cost 38 8d, sterling, (this remember, amusement are also multiplied, the danger cultural labor, they render that labor more after paying the planter, the merchant, the of such abuses is daily lessened. valuable; and congregating in this way, they freighter, &c., &c., an ample profit,) after Let us remark in the next place, how, by consume more of the products of labor, than being thus manufactured, would be worth means of improved machinery, the comif they were scattered in the families to twenty-five guineas. forts and innocent luxuries of life are dif which they belonged. Besides this, they The prejudices existing against machine- fused. I am disposed to call elegance of have introduced a large amount of foreign ry are fast losing their hold upon all reflect-dress, for example, when it is such only as population, by whose extraordinary skilling minds; and its advantages upon their befits our circumstances and means of exand labor we are greatly benefitted and vast condition are becoming far better understood penditure, an innocent luxury. We have public improvements are effected; and by the common laborers. Whatever tends certainly high authority for regarding it whose subsistence of course creates a new to abridge the severity of human toil, and with favor; for what is more beatiful, gay, demand and market for the products of Ag-to abate the necessity of such an expendi- splendid, variegated, brilliant and gorgeous riculture. These effects are strongly perture of human power, as is both wearing to than the flowers of the field;, the scales ceptible in the immediate vicinity of Lowell; the spirits, and destructive to human life, of the reptile; the shells of the crustareous and a ready and high market is found there must be a general benefit. Whatever mul tribes; or the plumage of the birds? Now, for all kinds of Agricultural products. This tiplies to an almost universal diffusion, not how are these innocent luxuries multiplied is certainly great gain to the farming inter-only the comforts, but even the harmless lux- and placed within the reach of all the indusest; and valuable, not solely from the im-uries of life, whatever leave men more time to trious classes of the community; so that the mediate profits, which it now yields, but apply to the high purposes of intellectual most humble dwellings are often decorated from the inducement and stimulus, which improvement, or to innocent social enjoy- with an elegance of furniture, which not it gives to improvements; and to a more ment, must be a blessing. If the man who many years since, the wealth of palaces extended and productive cultivation. There causes two blades of grass to grow where could not have purchased; and the dress is another mode in which the cause of Ag but one grew before, is to be pronounced a worn by many of the laborers in these esriculture here is indirectly but greatly ben- public benefactor, certainly he is not less so, tablishments, and paid for too, by their honefitted. Much of the wages received by who will cause four to grow with no greatest industry, before it is worn, is such, as in the laborers in these factories is remitted to er expense of labor than the production of 1 times not far gone by, princesses of the friends at home; perhaps to extingush mort-blade formerly cost. Threshing machines realm would have envied." A pair of silk gages or incumbrances on the family es- have been, in some cases, the victims of pop-stockings, presented by the French Ambastate, or to aid in improving the domicil. ular resentment and frenzy; but there would sador, to Queen Elizabeth, was a rare posSeparate from the products of Agricul- have been equal reason in tearing down session, to be brought out only on extraorculture consumed in the subsistence of the every blacksmith's shop in the kingdom,and dinary occasions; and deemed a magnifioperatives of those establishments, let us breaking to pieces every plough and spade; cent present. A taste for dress I know will look at some of the items of those articles for the plough and spade are equally ma- be condemned by many ascetic and severe which are used immediately in the process chines; and as great advances upon the moralists. Pride of dress is, indeed, always of the manufacture. Of cotton, 13,676,600 earliest instruments of tillage, as the thresh-contemptible; and can only be excused lbs. Of wool, 1,600,000lbs. Of wood 4690 ing machine over the cominon flail. If the through want of understanding. But a cords. Of starch, 510,000 lbs. Of flour, threshing machine debars some persons strict care of the person, and a particular for starch in the mills, printworks and bleach- from their accustomed business, it relieves care of the dress, alike in respect to its ing, per annum, 3,800 barrels. Of char- them from their accustomed toil; if it makes neatness, propriety, and elegance, will be coal, per annum, 500,000 bushels. Of their labor less valuable, it renders their found not a mean auxiliary to purity of senTeasels, 3000,000. These amounts are bread less dear; if it closes one source of in-timent, decorum of manners, and innocence certainly enormous; and when added to come and subsistence, it leaves them time, of conduct. Vulgarity and slovenliness of the bread, meat, vegetables, hay, oats, corn, strength, and opportunity to make choice dress, and utter disregard of personal ap milk, fruit, &c., &c., necessary for the con- of others. If the stick or the shell, or the pearance, especially in the young, is too of sumption of the human machinery here improved machine, the spade, must be ten but an index to grosser neglects, and the employed, it is easy to see what demands brought back to take the place of that ad- harbinger of moral delinquencies. Every are made upon agriculture for the supply mirable contrivance for saving human labor,thing on the other hand, which contributes of them; and what quick and profitable the plough, then must nine tenths of the to promote self-respect, increases a sense of returns the supply of them brings back to land, now in tillage and productive, be the value of character; and a high sense the farmer. thrown out of cultivation; the means of of the value of character is one of the greatThe power of machinery is another cir- human subsistence be in proportion dimin-est securities of virtuous conduct. cumstance that strikes one with astonish-ished, and the price of what is produced | There is another good,resulting from the ment on visiting these places. Operations enhanced. In time, as we have already re-modern improvements in machinery, which which it would require years to accomplish marked, an immense deal is gained; that is is not immediately obvious at first sight; by any other process, are here accomplish now accomplished in a single day, which but which is certain, and deserving great ed in a day. Operations which the formerly, years of patient and severe consideration. Much has been said of the combined power of a thousand men, could toil could not have completed. I know division of labor; and the perfection to pot effect, are here performed under the that cupidity and avarice may still which by means of it, the arts have been

carried. This has been illustrated by a ref-secular instruction, the state prescribes the system of education establishes certain erence to the manufacture of a pin, which subjects and directs the modes of teaching fixed points of support, which leave room passes through various processes, each re- through a number of instructors, and a for universal and indefinite improvement, quiring or employing a different artizan. body of inspectors appointed for this pur- and which brings every institution of soThe same things occur in various other pose, and appointed simply for their quali-ciety in harmony with the rest. It secures manufactures. The effect has heretofore fications in this respect without any of permanent superintendents devoted to these been that one person has been confined for those distracting questions and jealousies abjects, previously well-qualified, and gainlife to a single, minute operation; and that,||about party or sect which would embarrassing every year stores of experience for most probably, an uninteresting one; and our governments. But in regard to religion, themselves, and the minister of education, requiring in order to its expert practice along it assumes only the right to decide, and to by their regular tones of inspection and and tedious apprenticeship. Such is, in insist, that instruction shall be given; leav-examination, and aided by the more detailmany cases, the improved character of the ing to the clergy of each church the entire ed reports of local inspectors. It is in this machine employed in various operations, direction of the subjects and the manner of manner they furnish every child in the that the machinery itself, with a self-direct-instruction. land with a complete and harmonious course ing and self-adjusting power, performs The laws, however, decide one point ab-of instruction of the best kind, and confer many operations at one and the same time; solutely, that religious instruction must no power on a subject, without endeavoring and with a precision which the human hand take the first place in importance, and from to instil the principles and form the habits or eye can scarcely be expected to attain a part of the business of this school daily, of thinking and feeling which shall direct and preserve. This is particularly illus- for not less than one hour in six. It will him in using it aright. trated in the whip and card manufacturing; not permit that it should be confined to the and this is a great gain to humanity and weekly catechetical instruction of the a general benefit; since many operations, clergy, which is given with a regularity which were very trying to the health and and minuteness unknown to our clergy in spirits, which required long practice and general, and still less to the irregular and intense application, are now performed by uncertain instruction of parents, so many machinery under the superintendence of a of whom cannot if they will, or will not child, after, it may be, a week's, or a if they can, attend properly to this part of

month's instruction. March, 1836.

H. C.

From the Annals of Education for April. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF THE PRUSSIAN SCHOOL SYSTEM.

their children's education.

In the application of these principles the laws appear to secure every important point. Provision is first made for the preparation of Christian school masters, of the leading denomination, by the establishment of distinct seminaries for teachers, sustained by government, but regulated and inspected by the clergy of the respective churches Where the parents in a school district are agreed in reilgious opinions, a teacher of the same sect gives religious instruction, under the direction of the pastor, and everything goes on with regularity and in harmony.

as it is now termed the evangelical church,
consisting of the old Lutherans and Re-
Jormed united, establishes and sustains
schools for each. The Catholic Seminaries
supply teachers for the Catholic schools,
and even the Jewish children are furnished
with an instructor of their own sect.

The nature of the Government also enables them to execute a law,-which however reasonable, might meet with resistance elsewhere,-to secure by civil regulation the attendance of every child on the instruction thus provided.

It would seem at first sight difficult to apply such a system to countries differently situated. It is certain indeed, that where the direction rests with the mass of the people, light must be more extensively dif fused, and education better understood, and more highly appreciated, before such measures can be executed, or even adopted. It is not less true, however, that if we admit the fundamental principles, that the State has as much right to claim the mental, as the bodily services of its citizens, and to require suitable preparations for it, and that religious instruction is indispensable, as the basis of moral principle, and of a spirit of obedience to the laws, and of genuine liberty, the plans adopted to carry them into effect, are the most simple and excellent

Frankfort on Mayne, Nov. 27, 1835.

DEPTH OF MINES.

Kits puhl copper mine in the Tyrol Feet. mountains,

Sampson mine at Andreasberg, in the

Hartz,

2764

2230

We have recently conversed with several officers of the Prussian government in reference to their system of education. To enter fully into this system and to understand completely any portion of it, it must be remembered that in this kingdoms, the State, the Church, and the School, are inseparably united by numerous and intimate bonds. The government is at the In places where each of two or more dehead of the church and the school-if we nominations is sufficiently numerous to sus-which could be devised. may be allowed to use the latter term intain a school, the Government, although the same general sense as the other, to connected of itself with the reformed, or include all the schools of the kingdom. It assumes the right to prescribe that every village must have its church and its school, that every man shall have the means of religious instruction-that every child shall attend some school. It does this on the ground that its citizens should be prepared to become good subjects, and that they canThe most perplexing case is that in not be so without receiving both intellectual which the inhabitants of a small village or and religious instruction. Its right is un- district are so divided that no single sect is disputed to preserve the bodies of its sub-sufficiently numerous to sustain a school. jects from injury, and to have them trained Here the laws direct that a "simultaneous to military exercises, and military skill, that school" shall be established; that is, one they may be prepared to serve and defend in which children of all sects are united for their country by physical power, and pre- the purpose of mere intellectual instruction. vented from becoming burdens for want of Still, the Government here insists, that reThe deep mines in the Tyrol, Hartz and it. It claims the same right to guard their ligious instruction shall be given in con- Andes, above described, are all in high sitminds from debasement and corruption- nection with the school. Pastors are ac-uations-the bottom of the Mexican mine to require, that they should receive that cordingly required to give instruction to the is six thousand feet higher than the top of instruction which will aid them in gaining children of their respective flocks, during the Cornwall shaft. The deepest perforaa subsistence, and being useful to their the week, and are subject to the supervi- tion beneath the level of the sea, and concountry; and that moral training, which sion of the Inspector of Schools, in regard will make them good subjects. to the faithful performance of this duty; whilst no interference is allowed as to the opinions taught. There is so little jealousy between good men, even of different de nominations, that the teacher of such schools is sometimes of one sect, sometimes of another.

It does not seem to enter into the conception of any officer of State, or church, or school here, that order can be secured in a community without religion, or that morality can have any other sold basis than Christian instruction and Christian training, in a Christian spirit. In reference to mere

It is in this manner that the Prussian

Valencia mine, (silver,) Guanaxuato,
Mexico,
Pearce's shaft, (copper,) consolidated
mines, Cornwall, -
Monkwearmouth colliery, Durham,
Wheal Abraham mine, Cornwall,
Eiton mine, Staffordshire,

2170

1650

1600

1410

1380

sequently the nearest approach to the earth's centre, has been made at the Monkwearmouth colliery, which is fifteen hundred and thirteen feet below the surface of the German ocean. Pearce's shaft (thirteen hundred and thirty-eight feet below the level of the sea,) was, until lately, the deepest in the world.[Geology in 1835, (Mining Review.)]

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