York until 1682, when it was granted to William Penn, who desired an outlet to the sea for his larger colony of Pennsylvania.

William Penn had been one of the Quaker purchasers of New Jersey and in 1681 secured a grant from Charles I. of a tract of 45,000 square miles to be held in fealty on an annual payment of two beaver skins. The consideration for the grant was the cancellation of a debt of about sixteen thousand pounds, which had been the due from the crown to the father of William Penn.

Both Pennsylvania and Delaware were throughout the whole colonial period proprietary colonies. The early government established by Penn was extremely just and liberal, and emigration to these colonies was rapid. Pennsylvania has the honor of being the first Christian community in the world which allowed complete religious freedom.

Delaware was first governed as a part of Pennsylvania, and went by the name of "The Territories" or "Three Lower Counties on the Delaware." Later Pennsylvania and Delaware were given separate legislatures, but still continued under the rule of a single governor. The joint governor was appointed by the Proprietors, but the members of the legislature were elected by the people. The governors appointed by the successors of William Penn were so unpopular that after the Declaration of Independence the State Constitutions adopted in these two states provided for an Executive Council instead of a single executive head. Pennsylvania had only a single branch in her legislative body until 1790. A peculiar feature of the government of Pennsylvania was her council of censors, resembling somewhat in their duties the old Roman officials of that title, who assembled once in seven years to report as to whether the state has been well governed during the periods since the last meeting of this council. It was this peculiar institution which, through at peculiar combination of circumstances, prevented the threatened civil war between Pennsylvania and Connecticut in 1784.

§ 57. Maryland.-Maryland was settled under a grant to Cecil, Lord Baltimore. The colony was primarily intended as a place of refuge for Roman Catholics, but religious freedom was

secured to every Christian denomination except the Unitarians. A fuller degree of self-government also was granted by this first charter than was given in any other colony. An insurrection on the part of the Puritans who had settled in the colony temporarily deprived Lord Baltimore of his power, which was, however, restored to him by Cromwell. Civil warfare between Catholics and Puritans disturbed the peace of the colony until 1701, when Maryland was made a royal province. In 1716 the proprietary rights of the descendants of Lord Baltimore were restored to them and Maryland remained a proprietary colony during the remainder of the colonial period. Maryland was among the most conservative of the colonies on the question of independence.

§ 58. North and South Carolina.-Although there had been a number of small and ineffectual attempts at colonization prior to the time, nothing of importance was done towards the settlement of the Carolinas until 1663, when Charles II. granted the territory to eight of its courtiers. The grantees were made absolute lords and proprietors of the country, the King reserving to himself and his successors sovereign dominion. They were empowered to enact and publish laws, with the advice and consent of the freemen, to erect courts and judicature, and appoint civil judges, magistrates and other officers, to erect forts, castles, cities and towns; to make war, and, in cases of necessity to exercise martial law; to construct harbors, make ports and enjoy custodies and subsidies on goods loaded and unloaded, by consent of the freemen. The charter granted freedom in religious worship. The philosopher, John Locke, and Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, in 1669 prepared a scheme of government for the colony, based upon feudal principles. The proposed system was unsuited for existing conditions, being, in fact, almost grotesque in many of its provisions, and was so unpopular with the settlers that no real attempt was ever made to put it into operation. The settlers of Carolina were of diverse characters, including colonists sent directly from England by the proprietors, emigrants from Virginia and the West Indies, Puritans from New England, French Huguenots, Jacobins and Scotch Presbyterians. Clashes between the various elements were frequent and made

Carolina one of the most turbulent of the colonies. After being several times divided and re-united Carolina in 1729 was permanently divided into North Carolina and South Carolina, each of which was made a royal province. There was a strong Tory element in the Carolinas, but the Whigs were in the majority and took a vigorous part in the Revolutionary War.

§ 59. Georgia.-Georgia, the last of the thirteen original colonies, was settled in 1732 under a grant made to James Oglethorpe. The purpose of the colony was to furnish a refuge to debtors, prisoners and paupers. Georgia became a royal province in 1752. Her first legislative assembly was created in 1755. Georgia played a very minor part both in colonial history and in the Revolutionary War on account of her position and small population.

§ 60. The Revolutionary War. The course of events leading to the Revolutionary War began almost at the outset of the reign of George III., the character and aims of which ruler were briefly referred to at the close of the previous chapter. To the attempt of this king to rule in England, instead of to merely reign as his two immediate predecessors had been content to do, can be traced the breaking out of the great Revolution. The attitude of George III. towards the colonies was only one aspect of his large policy towards the English Empire as a whole. The spirit of independence which he encountered in the colonies was the same spirit of independence which he sought to curb at home. The contest with the colonies was deliberately sought by the reactionary king as a preliminary test of strength before the opening of the greater contest. The American minute men were fighting not only their own battle but also the battle of England. The Revolutionary War in its broadest significance was not one. between America and England, but one in which the radical forces in both countries were arrayed against the conservative. elements in each. William Pitt rejoiced that America had resisted, while Fox openly and habitually in his speeches in the House of Commons referred to Washington's forces as "our army," and adopted the famous blue and buff of the continental army as the colors of the Whig party. With the mass of the English people the war was so unpopular that the troops for the

war mainly had to be hired in Germany. On the other hand a much larger proportion of the whole population of the colonies than is generally supposed were Tories in their sympathies, and this element included among their numbers the majority (the great majority outside of Massachusetts, Connecticut and Virginia) of the wealthy and educated classes.

If the English House of Commons had fairly represented the English people the war would probably never have occurred; but it did not fairly represent them. In the words of the younger William Pitt, "The House is not the representative of the people of Great Britian. It is the representative of nominal boroughs, of ruined and exterminated towns, of noble families, of wealthy individuals, of foreign potentates." In a population of eight millions of English people only one hundred and sixty thousand had the right of suffrage.

The details of the struggle are immaterial. The contest was originally one over taxation, but the resistance was not on account of money, but of principle.

The American colonists were demanding the application in the New World of that old Anglo-Saxon principle, proclaimed by the Magna Charta and the Bill of Rights, that taxation without representation was illegal.

The pressure from England began to bring the colonies into closer relations with each other and to lay the foundations for a united country. The earlier attempts at the consolidation of the colonies had proved unsuccessful. Those instituted by the King, such as the union of the northern colonies under Andros, had met with resistence from the people; while such meetings as the Albany Congress had been viewed with suspicion by the English government.

The passage of the Stamp Act led to the meeting of the "Stamp Act Congress," in October, 1765. Nine colonies were represented and advanced ground was taken in support of the rights of the colonies. Laying aside arguments based on chartered privileges the Congress took their stand on the broad doctrines of inalienable rights and privileges, asserting their right to trials by jury in all cases and to freedom from all taxation not voted by a body wherein they were represented.

Nine years later the first Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. All the colonies aroused at the calamity overhanging one of their number were represented. The English government, enraged at the Boston Tea Party, had passed through Parliament a series of acts designed to crush the most daring of the colonies and to intimidate the others. The charter of Massachusetts was annulled, her town meetings destroyed and the appointment of all officials was vested in the Crown. Boston as the center of the disturbance was particularly punished; she was no longer to be either the capital of the colony or a port of entry and provision was made for quartering British troops upon her citizens. The trial of any British soldier or official accused of murder was to be transferred to England.

This first Continental Congress was a mere provisional government. There was no thought, except in the minds of advanced thinkers, like Samuel Adams, of political separation from England. A redress of grievances was demanded, not a severance of existing political ties. The second Continental Congress met the following year under more stormy auspices; by this time the war had begun, the Battle of Lexington having already been fought. The day for compromise had passed, and the contest could only end by the unconditional surrender of the one side or the other. It was, however, not until after the evacuation of Boston in the ensuing year that the question of independence was taken up. Within a few days after the passage of the Declaration of Independence2 a committee was appointed to draft a framework of government for the United States.

The Articles of Confederation were finally passed by Congress on October 15, 1777, and submitted to the states. Eleven of the states ratified the Articles of Confederation before the close of the year 1778. Delaware delayed until 1779, and Maryland until 1781. The delay on the part of Maryland was for the purpose of compelling the states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York and Virginia to surrender their claims to the northwest territory. Although not fully ratified until 1781 the See Appendix B.

See Appendix A.