CHAPTER V.

INDUSTRIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION AND EMPLOYERS' PREFERENCES FOR RACES.

Effect of the employment of immigrants upon former employees-Effect of the employment of immigrants upon the use of machinery-Employers' opinions of recent immigrants.

EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS UPON FORMER

EMPLOYEES.

As previously stated in this report, whites native-born of native father, together with the foreign-born English, Germans, Irish, Scotch, and Welsh, were the first employees of the various plants in this district. For some years the representatives of these races performed all labor, both skilled and unskilled, in and around each plant. As the plants expanded to meet the increased demand for their product, additional labor was required, and to meet this requirement, and for other reasons previously mentioned, the more recent immigrants were employed. This process has continued until at present the races above mentioned as unskilled, or "common" laborers, have been almost entirely supplanted by the more recent immigrant races. This displacement has not rested here, for although the progress of the more recent immigrants and their advancement into the more skilled occupations has been slow, it has nevertheless occurred. The extent of this advancement, however, varies not only as between the plants, but also as between the various races employed therein. By way of illustration, the Slovaks in plant No. 2 and the Slovaks and Croatians in plant No. 3 have shown greater progress, and consequently have been advanced over the representatives of the other more recent immigrant races. In these plants, quite a number have been made foremen of labor gangs, and a few have been made "shearmen" and "heaters."

In the coke works of plant No. 6, there are two Italian foremen. This is the only plant investigated in the district in which Italians were found employed other than as "common" laborers. In the mechanical department of plant No. 4, the Poles and Slovaks have advanced from helpers to millwrights and blacksmiths, while in the mills they are employed as levermen, boss bottom makers, assistant rollers, guide setters, and rollers. In plant No. 1, "German," "Austrian," and "Russian" Poles are working at the rolls and as heaters. The Slovaks have not advanced in this plant as have the other races; however, a majority of the engineers on the small locomotives are of this race. The progress of the Magyars at plant No. 5 is in striking contrast to the progress of the Magyars at any other plant. This is due to the fact that the Magyars were employed, in the first instance, in larger numbers at this plant than at any other, and to the further fact that

they have not been so migratory as is usually the case with the more recent immigrant races. Among the Magyars, Poles, and Slovaks there are 2 rollers, 6 mechanics, and 4 heaters. In addition to these quite a number of each of these races are employed as assistants to others holding the above-mentioned positions. One native-born Magyar is an electrician, and several are employed as bricklayers, while as assistant yardmasters, two foreign born Magyars are employed. In nearly every instance, the representatives of the more recent immigrant races who have been advanced to the more skilled occupations are those who have long been employed at the plant; therefore, while it is true that a displacement of the native Americans and other English-speaking races, also the Germans, has to some extent occurred, this displacement and corresponding advancement may be more properly considered one of individuals than of races. That the first generation of the more recent immigrant races will not become serious competitors of the native Americans, and of other English-speaking races, or the Germans, in the skilled occupations, is the opinion rather generally expressed by those in authority at the several plants in this district. This opinion is based upon two facts: (1) The inability of these people to speak English and their apparent indifference toward acquiring a knowledge of that language; and (2) the fact that they do not, upon the whole, remain sufficiently long in any one place to acquire a thorough knowledge of the work in hand. The same men hold an entirely different opinion as to the second generation. They have no hesitancy in stating that if the young men of native American or other English-speaking parents do not follow the same or similar occupations followed by those parents, the second generation of the more recent immigrants will eventually control the skilled positions in every department.

EFFECT OF THE EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS UPON THE USE OF MACHINERY.

The introduction of machinery in certain departments has had the effect of decreasing the number of employees formerly required to turn out a certain product; and, to some extent, has resulted in the payment of lower wages. In this connection, two questions are naturally suggested: (1) Has the introduction of machinery lessened the cost of turning out a certain product? and (2) have a certain number of employees, as a result of new methods, been compelled to seek employment elsewhere? One in authority at one of the oldest plants in this district states that the cost of turning out a certain product has not been lessened by the introduction of machinery; and that although wages in some departments have decreased, the work in these departments is lighter under the new than under the older methods. In reply to the second question, officials recall that after steel supplanted iron and the advantages of using the product became generally known, it was not long before there was a large demand for it in every conceivable form. This demand, they say, necessitated the addition of many new departments, requiring an additional number of men to operate them. The resultant expansion, therefore, has led to the employment of a much larger number of men than has been affected by the introduction of machinery. While fewer men are required to turn out a certain product in some depart

ments, because of new methods and the introduction of machinery, one department-the mechanical-as a result thereof has largely expanded.

EMPLOYERS' OPINIONS OF RECENT IMMIGRANTS.

In a district where so many of the more recent immigrant races are employed and where the representatives of these races in no two plants are employed in equal proportions, opinions as regards their efficiency, progress, adaptability, etc., naturally vary. For this reason, it is considered best to present a brief résumé of the opinions expressed by officials of the several plants. In presenting these opinions, however, it must be remembered that only those races are considered which, because of the large number of representatives employed, have become an important factor in the operation of the plants. In plant No. 1, the "German" and "Austrian" Poles, Lithuanians, Slovaks, "Russian" Poles, and Magyars are preferred in the order named. The foremen in this plant claim that many of the immigrants now employed do not physically measure up to those of the same races previously employed. Slovaks, Poles, and Magyars is the order of preference in plant No. 2. The officials at this plant note very little difference in the other races employed. The Slovaks are considered the most intelligent, and, in the opinion of those who come in daily contact with them, will advance more rapidly than the others. Many of the Slovaks have purchased houses, which is always interpreted as making for a better citizenship and a permanent force from which to secure laborers. When there is any construction work to be done, Italians are usually employed.

In plant No. 3 only two of the more recent immigrant races are employed in sufficient numbers at present to enable those in authority to form any opinion of their relative merits. They have in the past, however, formed opinions of others, and the following, in so far as their efficiency, progress, and adaptability are concerned, is the order in which they are preferred: Slovaks, Magyars, Croatians, and Italians.

As to the tractability of the Slovaks, Magyars, and Croatians, there is no apparent difference, while, if a distinction as to the industriousness of these same races could be drawn, the Slovaks would be slightly favored. The Italians, on the other hand, are thought less of than any of the more recent immigrants, and are considered treacherous and hard to control. At plant No. 4 a very different opinion from that at plant No. 2 is expressed. In plant No. 4 the order of preference is as follows: Poles, Slovaks, Magyars, Lithuanians, Croatians, and Italians. The Poles are considered more intelligent and indus

These qualities make for a higher state of efficiency, which in turn results in more rapid progress. They are also easily controlled.

It is claimed that there is very little difference between the Magyars, Lithuanians, and Croatians as to their adaptability, efficiency, or progress. They are all tractable, but none are considered very industrious. The Italians are the least favored, and, like those in the former plant, are considered treacherous and hard to control.

As regards the general efficiency and progress of the more recent immigrants, the officials at plant No. 5 prefer the Magyars, Poles,

and Slovaks, in the order named. As regards the adaptability of these same races, the position of the Poles and Magyars is reversed. As to their tractability there is little, if any, difference; but the Poles are considered more industrious than either the Magyars or Slovaks. Italians and Roumanians are also employed at this plant, but, as compared with the representatives of the other immigrant races, they are considered of little worth. The Roumanians, however, are considered more reliable than the Italians.

At plant No. 6, in every department except the coke works, in which the Italians so largely predominate, the men who have to deal with the more recent immigrants prefer them in the following order: Slovaks, Magyars, Croatians, and Roumanians. In this district this plant alone presents an exception to the general criticism of the Italians. This favorable comment is primarily due to the employment of two Italian foremen, who are intimately acquainted with the Italian population. It is claimed by the superintendent of this department that these foremen have exercised excellent judgment in selecting men from their own race, and that, as a result of this careful selection, far better results have been obtained than formerly.

CHAPTER VI.

HOUSING AND LIVING CONDITIONS.

Rent in its relation to standard of living-Boarders and lodgers-Size of apartments occupied Size of households studied-Congestion-[Text Tables 197 to 209 and General Tables 83 to 94].

RENT IN ITS RELATION TO STANDARD OF LIVING.

Although the monthly rent payments of the iron and steel workers are important in connection with the question of cost of living, they are chiefly significant in their relation to standards of living for the reason that they afford an insight into living conditions within the households studied. The following table shows the average monthly rent payment per apartment, per room, and per person, according to general nativity and race of head of household:

TABLE 197.-Average rent per month, by general nativity and race of head of household.

In 593 households reported in the above table, the average monthly rent for apartments is $10.25 and the average per room $2.58, each person paying an average of $1.29. An analysis of the average rent per apartment, room, and person indicates that persons native-born of native father not only live in comparatively high-priced apartments but that the households are small, as evidenced by the high rate of $2.75 per person. On the other hand, the Slovaks, North Italians, and Magyars among the foreign-born indicate the best living