SiO2 Palladium

Material studied in an aqueous electrolysis cell is indicated by "Electro" and a dry electrolytic cell by "electrodischarge"; gas loading is generally designated by
the pressure of the D2 gas; and "discharge" and "bombardment" designate the use of high-voltage discharge in low-pressure D2 and bombardment by high-energy
ions, respectively. When in D2 gas, the material was generally cycled with respect to pressure and/or temperature.
"Frequently, variations in the listed detectors were used. In addition to neutron detection, many workers made provisions to find gamma rays by using the listed
detector. The 'He and BF, detectors are sensitive only to near-thermal neutrons while the various scintillators such as NE-213 and "Li combined with NE-213
can be used to determine the energy of both neutrons and gamma rays within a wide energy range. Pulse-height measurement is used to distinguish between neutron
and gamma emission. Detectors made from germanium or Nal are sensitive to gamma and X rays. CR39 is a track detector that is sensitive to high-energy par-
ticles. Frequently, two detectors are used to eliminate the possibility of spurious counts in one detector being interpreted incorrectly.
"The stated value for neutrons per count, expressed as percent, is listed. The value is only for the neutron detector. Occasionally, several configurations were studied,
giving multiple values for the efficiency. The smaller the value, the more likely small emission rates would be missed.

"The background is given as counts per second only for neutron detection. In some cases, a variety of values were observed depending on the configuration. This value
as well as the listed efficiency can only be used as a rough guide to the sensitivity of the detection system. The original paper needs to be consulted for more detail.
'Excess neutron detection rate is expressed as a multiple of background or sigma above background. Generally, a range of values was reported, depending on
the particular experiment.

gold-plated bar of titanium.' On the other hand, neither Blagus et al. 201 (Ruder Boskovic Institute, Yugoslavia), using much shorter cycles (2 Hz, 2.2 mHz, and 0.56 mHz), nor Aiello et al. 205 (Universita di Catania, Italy), using loading and unloading in D. gas, produced neutrons.

5. Iyengar et al. 235 (BARC, India) reported a large variety of observations during which neutrons were detected from palladium, Pd-Ag, titanium, and Ni-Ti electrodes using LiOD or NaOD in the electrolyte. Steady production as well as large bursts were measured. Neutron production was correlated with gamma-ray and tritium production. Pulsing the current between 1 and 2 A during part of a cell history seemed to encourage production of nuclear products.

6. Gozzi et al.219 (University of Rome, Italy) correlated a sudden increase in cathode (sintered palladium powder) temperature (>120°C) with a burst of neutrons (7.2 × 103). In this case, it is not known whether the heat rise caused conditions that produce neutrons or, on the other hand, a nuclear event produced neutrons and caused a temperature rise.

7. Yamaguchi and Nishioka 254 (NTT Basic Research Laboratory, Japan) coated a sheet of palladium (1 mm thick) on one side with Mn-O and on the other with gold. After being held for a day in 0.5 atm D2 at room temperature, the sample was placed in vacuum. Within 3 h, an explosive release of deuterium occurred that was associated with a burst of neutrons (1 to 2 x 10 n/s). Sudden heating caused alloying between the gold and palladium. Repeated cycles using the same sample produced similar neutron bursts but after a shorter time in vacuum. Neutron production and heat were not observed while using normal hydrogen. This heat cannot be caused simply by loss of the small amount of contained D2 gas because this reaction is endothermic.

8. Bém et al.330 (Institute of Nuclear Physics, Czechoslovakia) found that a thin layer of titanium (1.4 to 1.7 mg/cm2 on molybdenum) that had been reacted with tritium showed low-level neutron production at 14 MeV when it was used as a cathode in an electrolytic cell. On the other hand, Guilinger et al.152 [Sandia National Laboratories (SNL)] failed to find evidence of fusion using a thin film of titanium tritide on copper in an electrolytic cell, and Southon et al. 184 (McMaster University, Canada) detected no neutrons after a larger piece of titanium had been heated in T2 gas and electrolyzed. However, there were other major differences between these studies besides the thickness of titanium that could account for the different results.

'It is not clear which metal, the palladium or the titanium, caused the neutron burst.

9. Sánchez et al.256 (Universidad Autonoma Cantoblanco, Spain) electrolyzed titanium in a cell containing Li2SO in D2O. Bursts of neutrons (up to 4 x 10 times background) were correlated with changes in cell current, gamma-ray detection (2 to 2.3 MeV), and tritium production. The neutron rate dropped in a linear manner after the cell current was turned off.

10. Lipson et al. 278 (Institute of Physical Chemistry, USSR) found that ball milling titanium with D2O or deuterated polypropylene caused neutron emission (0.3 to 0.4 count/s) during the process, for a short time (8 to 10 min) afterward, and when the material was cooled in liquid nitrogen. Repeated cycles caused the effect to disappear.

11. Silvera and Moshary11 (Harvard University) reported an important negative study done at very high pressures (105 kbar) using thin palladium (97 μm thick x 208-μm diameter) in D2 gas. A D/Pd ratio of 1.34 ± 0.1 was claimed. This is much higher than any other reported value. However, the palladium had been pressure bonded to rhenium, an operation that would have severely disrupted the periodic array of atoms within the lattice. Detection sensitivity was not sufficient or stable enough to be able to conclude that energy was being produced although there was a slight indication of excess heat (<2.3 mW). No neutrons were observed above the 1.86 ± 0.3 count/h background, and no effort was made to detect tritium. Fractofusion' is not possible under these conditions, although heat and/or tritium production might have been possible but their production was inconclusive.

12. Shani et al.272 (Ben Gurion University and Hebrew University, Israel) made studies of gas-loaded palladium and high-pressure D2 that suggest that the emission of 2.5-MeV neutrons is enhanced by an external source of neutrons.

III.D Gamma-Ray and Other Emissions

Many workers have examined cells with gammaray detectors. However, only a few have detected gamma rays, and this was only while some other aspect of the cold fusion effect was occurring. Because normal water is usually present, some, if not all, of the gamma rays may result from neutron/proton interaction to give a 2.2-MeV signal. A calculated, idealized gamma spectrum produced by the 2.45-MeV neutron energy associated with D-D fusion has been published.3 331

1. Scott et al.217 (ORNL) measured gamma rays while neutrons were being emitted and heat was being produced. Counts were seen between 2.61 and 3.14 MeV with no increase outside this range down to 2.12 MeV

'Fractofusion is fusion that is proposed to occur when cracks form in the metal hydride.

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or above 5.2 MeV. Correlation between gamma-ray and neutron emission also has been reported by Celani et al. 255 (Frascati Research Centre, Italy) for gammaray energy between 100 and 500 keV, and >800 keV; Jorne264 (University of Rochester) for gamma-ray energies >360 keV; and Sánchez et al. (Universidad Autonoma Cantoblanco, Spain) for energies between 2 and 2.3 MeV. Iyengar et al.235 (BARC, India) measured correlated neutron and gamma-ray emission (1.186 and >3 MeV) in a variety of cells. Bush et al. (University of Texas and Naval Weapons Center) detected electromagnetic radiation while heat was being produced using X-ray film.

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2. Matsumoto 283 (Hokkaido University, Japan) saw tracks in nuclear-sensitive film located on the outside of a cell containing a palladium cathode and an electrolyte of 3% NaCl in D2O. The shape of the tracks was used to argue for a new particle called an "iton."

3. Jones et al.332 (Brigham Young University) detected charged-particle emission from deuteriumloaded palladium foils that showed clear energy peaks. Because the inferred energy depends on an uncertain knowledge of the type of particle, the absolute energy is unknown.

III.E. Nuclear Products from Bombardment or Implantation

Nuclear products have been produced by bombarding palladium or titanium with deuterium. Energy has been added to the atoms by using high voltage discharge, ion acceleration, or acceleration of D2O or D2 clusters. These techniques add energy to the deuterium atoms before they contact atoms residing in the metal lattice, resulting in what is called "lukewarm fusion" by some workers. Although some fusion is expected to be produced by such high energies, a large quantity of products, a low n/3H ratio, and sustained emission after bombardment has ceased have been observed and are not expected. On the other hand, some experiments did not produce unexpected results.

III.E.1. High-Voltage Discharge

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Karabut et al. 224 (Scientific Industrial Association, USSR) produced heat and neutrons using discharge in D2 gas with a palladium cathode. The purity of the surface was found to be important. A similar study by Besenbacher et al. (University of Aarhus, Denmark), during which the palladium was covered by 50 Å of copper, failed to produce neutrons. Palladium, after being silver-soldered in air to copper, also failed to produce results in a discharge cell [Ruzic et al.288 (University of Illinois)]. Prelas et al. 268 (University of Missouri) formed a microwave plasma in D2 (0.5 to

10 eV) that was caused to impact on palladium metal. Evidence of low-level neutron and gamma-ray emission (2 to 10 times background) was obtained while the plasma was operating. A gamma-ray peak centering on 8.1 MeV was observed during one experiment after a lengthy discharge.

Rout et al. 236 (BARC, India) subjected titanium to plasma discharge of D2 in a Mather plasma focus device333 that produced ion energies in the 10- to 100kev range. This technique produced significant amounts of tritium (up to 392 μCi) and a very low n/3H ratio (<10~$).

III.E.2. Ion Bombardment

Chambers et al. 285 (Naval Research Laboratory), after several previously reported negative attempts, detected the emission of particles that were consistent with the presence of high-energy tritons (≤5 MeV) after bombarding titanium with 300- to 1000-eV deuterons. The magnitude of the emission and its continuation for up to 6 min after the beam had been turned off are not consistent with expectation. Behrisch et al. (MaxPlanck-Institut für Plasmaphysik, Federal Republic of Germany) found that bombardment of titanium by 4.5keV D failed to produce detected reaction products.

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Cecil et al. 284 (Colorado School of Mines) bombarded thin films of palladium (1 μm) deposited onto molybdenum (3 μm) using 95-keV D*. Evidence of emitted 3-MeV photons and 1-MeV tritons was obtained during the bombardment. After the bombardment was stopped, when the foil had been sufficiently implanted with deuterium, a current was passed through the foil. Particle emission, assumed to be protons, was detected near 3 and 5 MeV. Later studies 283 using titanium implanted with deuterium followed by several thermal cycles produced large bursts of activity that were inferred to be 10-MeV tritons or 3He. The presence of any emission during such a treatment, but especially its energy, is unexpected. Gu et al.266 (Mississippi State University) observed neutron production (9 times background) while bombarding palladium with 1-keV D. Neutron production was also observed by Durocher et al. (University of Manitoba, Canada) using 60-keV D*. However, in the latter case, the flux was claimed to be consistent with known fusion theory. Further studies reported by McKee et al.334 (University of Manitoba, Canada) showed neutron emission from palladium and titanium targets when loaded with deuterium using 60-keV D* and 30keV Dr. Myers et al. (SNL) detected nearly equal proton and triton emission while bombarding palladium, zirconium, and titanium with 10-keV D+ but found no emission after the beam was turned off. Dignan et al.178 (San Francisco State University) bombarded a thin film of palladium (≈2000 Å) with 1-keV neutral deuterium and D2 at 77 K and found no evidence of emitted neutrons or 23.8-MeV gamma rays.

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