TABLE 132.-Months worked during the past year by males 16 years of age or over employed away from home, by general nativity and race of individual.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

[This table includes only races with 20 or more males reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

In this locality less then one-half of the males 16 years or over employed away from home for whom information was secured worked the entire twelve months in the year, 79.3 per cent worked nine months, and 92.4 per cent worked six months or over. The percentages show that the native-born of native father were employed upon the average for a considerably longer period than either the nativeborn of foreign father or the foreign-born. Of the foreign-born the Germans have the largest and the Poles the smallest proportion of individuals who worked twelve months and the Germans and Hebrews have the largest and the Magyars the smallest proportion of individuals who worked nine months or over. All of the Germans and Hebrews, 89.7 per cent of the Poles and 80.5 per cent of the Magyars worked six months or over.

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE RACES EMPLOYED.

and are

In the plant of the vehicle manufacturing company it is a policy of the establishment to work what are known as "large" and "small" gangs. The small gangs are composed of from 2 to 10 men, always made up of one race. The large gangs contain more than 10 men, and are composed of mixed races. Officials of the company state that by this system they are able to secure better work out of all departments through the fact that in the small gangs composed of men of only one race there is a harmony of interests, without sufficient numbers to become a disturbing influence in the management of the plant. In the large gangs, to prevent clannishness and the oppor tunity to combine as a body, mixed races are employed. The prac tical results of the system are apparent when the fact that there has been no serious labor trouble in the establishment is considered, and that the whole labor corps seems well satisfied with conditions under which work is offered. Outside of the establishments there is very little association between the immigrant races and the natives. The natives seem to prevent association by maintaining an attitude of superiority.

EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN.

Only in one department of the vehicle establishment are women employed, and there only in very small numbers. About 26 women are employed as "trimmers" in the finishing department, composed of the following races: Seven American, 7 German, 6 Polish, 2 Belgian, 1 Canadian, 1 Swede, 1 Dutch, 1 Finn. There is no disposition on the part of any race to secure employment for their women, and no children are employed in the shops under the age of 16 years.

LABOR DISPUTES.

Labor is weakly organized in Community A, and the large companies extend the unions no recognition. The number of the strikes in the history of the city are comparatively few and have been of but little consequence. The first labor trouble occurred in 1878, when there was a general "walk out" over wages in the plant of the vehicle manufacturing company. In this instance the company refused to grant the demands of the employees and closed down the plant. The plant remained idle for three weeks, at the end of which time the strikers applied for reemployment at the old rate of pay and the strike ended. This company has experienced no further trouble with its employees, and all races seem to be satisfied with the management and general conditions in the shops. In 1880 the employees of the plow works, who were largely Poles, demanded a general increase in wages throughout the plant, and at the company's refusal to comply with the demands a strike was declared, which affected all departments of the establishment. Rioting resulted, and police interference became necessary to preserve order. The company held firm, and at the end of a few weeks a number of the men returned to work at their former wages. Interest in the strike soon lagged, and in the course of a short time all of the strikers returned to work. This strike was known as the "Polish strike," it being led by members of that race. No further labor trouble was experienced by the community until the year 1903, when the employees of the sewing machine cabinet company became dissatisfied with the management of the plant and struck for higher wages as an excuse. The trouble lasted about ten days, and then the men returned to work on the same agreements as those prevailing when the strike began.

This trouble was followed in 1905 by a general strike among the motormen and conductors of the city electric lines, which has never been settled. The company imported strike breakers from the surrounding towns, who were chiefly native Americans, and continued the operation of its lines with but little interruption. From time. to time the displaced men have applied for reinstatement, receiving employment in some instances and being refused in others. This condition has existed for the past five years, and there seems to be no indication that the strike, as such, will ever be decided. The men have lost; and as the company is not embarrassed for lack of labor there seems to be but small chances of a final settlement. The history of the strikes in the community, therefore, reveals a list of defeats which all attempts of organized labor have experienced, and

if the present attitude of the industrial establishments is to be taken into account, there seems to be no future for organized labor in the city. Only in one strike have the immigrants taken the initiative, that of the Polish strike of 1880 in the plow works.

THE IMMIGRANT AND ORGANIZED LABOR.

The small extent to which the wage-earners in the community are members of labor organizations is set forth in the following table. which shows, by general nativity and race of individual, affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are working for wages.

TABLE 133.—Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.

a Not computed, owing to small number involved.

Only a fraction of 1 per cent of the males in this locality 21 years of age or over for whom information was secured are affiliated with trades unions. The proportion of the males having such affiliations is larger among the native-born than among the foreign-born.

CHAPTER V.

HOUSING AND LIVING CONDITIONS.

General housing conditions-Rent in its relation to standard of living-Boarders and lodgers-Size of apartments occupied-Size of households studied-Congestion[Text Tables 134 to 145 and General Tables 84 to 95].

GENERAL HOUSING CONDITIONS.

The housing conditions found in the community are excellent, and no distinction can be made between the conditions surrounding the native workmen and those of the older immigrant races, as they are about the same. To understand the housing conditions among the more recent immigrants, only a very general description is necessary. The houses occupied by the latter races are one and two story frame dwellings of from four to six rooms, each with a yard. No tenements or congested blocks are to be found in the city. Cleanliness is the rule and not the exception among all races, with probably the exception of the Hebrews. Few large boarding houses are to be found, and only among the more recent arrivals will the sleeping and the general living quarters be found congested. The Poles take excellent care of their homes; this is also true of Magyars of long residence. Sanitary conditions in immigrant localities, as well as in the city at large, are good. The sewer system of the city contains about 56 miles of trunks and laterals and empties into the river. The drinking water is obtained from artesian wells with a daily capacity of 14,000,000 gallons, ranging in depth to a maximum of 110 feet.

RENT IN ITS RELATION TO STANDARD OF LIVING.

The rent payments of the households the heads of which are employed in the manufacture of agricultural implements are chiefly significant in their bearing upon standards of living, because of congestion within the households arising from the practice of crowding the apartments in order to reduce the per capita rent outlay. The table first presented in this connection, which immediately follows, shows, by general nativity and race of head of household, the average monthly rent paid per apartment, per room, and per person.

577

TABLE 134.—Average rent per month, by general nativity and race of head of household, (STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

The above table shows that the average rent per apartment paid by the 174 households studied in this locality is $8.28 per month, while the average rent per room and per person is $1.71 and $1.82 per month, respectively. Households the heads of which are foreignborn pay a considerably lower average rent per apartment and per person and a slightly higher average per room than is shown in the total for all households. As between those households the heads of which are foreign-born and those the heads of which are native-born of foreign father, it will be noted that the former pay a considerably higher average rent per apartment, a slightly higher average per room, and a considerably lower average per person than do the latter. Comparing those households the heads of which are native whites born of native father with those the heads of which are foreign-born, it will be noted that while both pay the same average rent per month per room, the former pay a much higher average rent per apartment and per person than do the latter. Among those households the heads of which are foreign-born, it will be noted that the Germans pay a slightly higher average rent per apartment than the Hebrew and a much higher rent per person, while the average rent per room is slightly lower than that shown for the Hebrew households. The Hebrews, however, while paying only a slightly higher average rent per room than the Magyars and a considerably higher average rent per room than the Poles, show a much higher average rent per apartment and per person than do the households the heads of which are of either of these races the average rent per apartment paid by the Poles being much lower while the average rent per room is but slightly lower than that shown by the Magyar households. Of those households the heads of which are native-born of foreign father, it will be noted that the Polish show a slightly higher average rent per apart ment, a considerably lower average rent per room, and a much higher average rent per person than do the Polish households the heads of which are foreign-born.