The preceding table shows that by far the largest proportion, or 78.7 per cent, of the total income of the 327 families studied in this locality is derived from the earnings of husband, 12.1 per cent from the contributions of children, 7.4 per cent from the payments of boarders or lodgers, while less than 2 per cent is derived from earnings of wife and other sources, the foreign-born showing a considerably smaller proportion derived from earnings of husband and a slightly larger proportion from contributions of children and payments of boarders or fodgers than is shown in the total for all families. On the other hand, both the native-born of foreign father and native whites born of native father show smaller proportions of the total income derived from the contributions of children and payments of boarders or lodgers and a larger proportion from earnings of husband than shown for all families, the difference being less marked among the native-born of native father, white, than among the native-born of foreign father. Among the foreign-born the largest proportion of the total income received from earnings of husband is shown by the Hebrews, or 85.5 per cent, a proportion slightly in excess of that shown by the Germans and largely in excess of that shown by the Poles or Magyars-the last named reporting 58.5 per cent. From contributions of children the Poles derive a considerably larger proportion of the total income than do any of the other races, while from the payments of boarders or lodgers the proportions of the total income received by the Germans, Hebrews, and Poles, as contrasted with the proportion received by the Magyars, are extremely low, the last named receiving 29 per cent of the total income from this source. As regards the Poles, nativeborn of foreign father, it will be noted that no part of the total income is received from the earnings of wife, and while slightly smaller proportions are received from the contributions of children and payments of boarders or lodgers a slightly larger proportion is received from the earnings of husband than is the case with the native whites born of native father.

CHAPTER IV.

WORKING CONDITIONS.

Employment available-Reasons for the employment of immigrants-Methods of securing immigrant labor-Effect of the employment of immigrants upon establishment of new industries-General conditions of employment-Regularity of employment-Relations between the races employed-Employment of women-Labor disputes-The immigrant and organized labor-[Text Tables 132 and 133 and General Table 83].

EMPLOYMENT AVAILABLE.

Employment is available in this community in three large establishments employing, jointly, between 7,000 and 8,000 persons, and in six other establishments employing together from 1,500 to 2,000 workmen. The three larger establishments manufacture, respectively, agricultural implements, vehicles, and sewing-machine cabinets; and among the six other establishments, are one stone works, one plow works, one general agricultural implement plant, one watch factory, one cotton mill, and one woolen mill. In addition to these establishments, there are a number of smaller plants and shops in the city, which give employment to about 500 people.

REASONS FOR THE EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS.

Immigrants have been employed by the several industrial plants of Community A for three distinct reasons: (1) Scarcity of other labor; (2) cheapness; (3) because of their indifference as to the class of the work given them.

The locality has been largely settled by immigrants, and as has been stated in a preceding section, the immigrants compose about two-thirds of the present population, which has resulted in a scarcity of native labor in the community and the general employment of foreign workmen in the shops.

Officials of the larger concerns state that their experience has been that immigrant labor is cheaper than native labor in the lower occupations. To illustrate this point, one of the officials went so far as to say that the races of the more recent immigration could be "driven, in a season of rush work, to do almost double work, on the same pay as they usually receive, while the natives would not stand for such treatment." In the vehicle shops, as well as in the foundry shops of the plow works, there are occupations classed as unskilled, in which native Americans and the races of early immigration will not accept employment. Among the recent immigrants, however, were people who entered these occupations without question, and which furnishes the third reason for which immigrants have been employed in the community. One occupation found in this group, known as "grinding," in which chiefly Poles are employed, develops a kind of tuber

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culosis of the lungs, which is rapid in its development after the patient becomes affected. The work consists of sharpening and planing steel implements on emery wheels. During the process the fine particles of steel and emery which are cut by the rapidly revolving wheels, are breathed in by the operators, and carried into the lungs. With all possible care taken by the company to prevent the "grindings" from reaching the men operating the wheels, it is only a matter of a few years, possibly only a few months, before they are affected by the disease.

METHODS OF SECURING IMMIGRANT LABOR.

All of the larger plants have imported labor at times, but none in sufficient numbers to seriously affect the labor conditions in the community, except in the case of the importation of Poles by the large plow works, which began in 1870. The Poles were secured both in other parts of the United States and in Europe, but the other races imported from time to time have been gathered from other parts of the United States through employment agencies and special agents of the companies. The families of the immigrants were with them in most cases where large numbers have been imported, for the companies have endeavored to import only people whom they could reasonably expect to remain in the community and furnish a permanent labor supply. No discrimination is made between the races because of the fact that they are not natives, and all employment is open to those who are able to perform the work required. The preference, however, is given to natives in employment in some of the plants. In the plant of the vehicle manufacturing company, for instance, the officials claim that, should there be any real preference shown in the employment of labor, that the races would be consid ered in the following order: Americans, Swedes, Germans, Poles, Magyars, all other races employed. On the other hand, the officials of the sewing-machine cabinet company claim that they would show preference for the several races employed in their shops in the following order should an occasion arise: Germans, Scandinavians, Natives (including Irish, English, Scotch), Magyars, Poles, Italians, all other races except the Hebrews, Hebrews (last). From this it can be seen that the immigrants, as such, are not discriminated against to any great extent in the community, in securing employment, and in being advanced, fshouldt hey deserve advancement through their ability.

EFFECT OF EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS UPON ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW INDUSTRIES.

The most important plants in Community A, were established with both native and immigrant labor. The vehicle manufacturing company began operations in 1852 with mixed gangs of native and German labor, the largest plow works in 1855 with the same races, and the sewing-machine cabinet company in 1868 with natives, Germans, and Irish. The rapid growth of these establishments has been due to the immigrant labor supply which has enabled them to take rank among the most important industrial concerns in America.

Exclusive of these three plants, there are a number of other establishments which have been developed in industrial importance by the opportunity to secure immigrant labor. These smaller concerns were located in the community primarily to take advantage of the opportunity to employ immigrants. Among them will be found cotton and woolen mills, machine and foundary shops, plow works, and a watch factory. Immigrants in this manner have contributed largely to the present industrial importance of the community, and many of the most representative citizens give full credit to them as the ones who have developed the city.

GENERAL CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT.

Work is always obtainable in the larger establishments in normal business periods, and unless the industrial disturbance is unusually severe the labor conditions in the community are but little affected. Wage payments are made in currency in some of the plants, and in others by checks drawn on local banks which are accepted at face value at the most important stores in the city. Some of the companies make wage payments every week, but the majority pay wages only every other week. None of the larger establishments own houses which they could rent to their employees, and no company stores are found in the locality. Medical attention is furnished by the larger companies through contracts with local physicians to render services when required. There are no company hospitals in the community, and none of the plants maintain accident insurance funds. In the vehicle manufacturing plant the company pays a local physician an annual salary to attend all employees of the establishment when injured in the course of their work. In addition to this, the company settles all other bills connected with the injury suffered by any employee, but in no case does the company pay any part of such employee's wages while unable to perform his duties. There is no special liability to accident or disease in any of the plants, except the plow works, which are not found in the average manufacturing establishment where machinery is largely used. In the plow works, as has been mentioned in another section, there is an occupation known as "grinding" which often develops a tuberculosis of the lungs among the men engaged in it, should they continue at the work for any length of time. Poles are almost exclusively employed in this occu pation, and the mortality rate among them is very high.

REGULARITY OF EMPLOYMENT.

The regularity of employment offered in the community, as well as the relative industriousness of the several races employed, is exhibited by the following table, which shows, by general nativity and race of individual, months worked during the past year by males 16 years of age or over employed away from home."