TABLE 13.--Number of male glass workers in selected States, by gend country of birth of parents, 1900.

[Census of 1900, "Occupations" Tables 2, 23, and 41.]

TABLE 14.-Number of female glass workers in selected States, by gene

TABLE 14.-Number of female glass workers in selected States, by general nativity and country of birth of parents, 1900—Continued.

The census of 1880 does not indicate race or nativity of glass workers separately by States. It is therefore impossible to give the returns for that census. In 1890 the employees of the industry were classified by country of birth. Of the 32,324 male workers in the United States at the time 12,796 were native-born of native parents, 10,673 were native-born of foreign parents, and 8,855 were foreignborn. The proportion of foreign-born employees was larger in Pennsylvania than in any other State for which the percentages are given in the table. It will be noted, further, that the total number of workers was much larger in Pennsylvania than in any other State. Natives of Germany, Great Britain, and Ireland, in the order mentioned, had the largest representation among the foreign-born, both for the country as a whole and for Pennsylvania. In the census of 1900 employees of the glass-manufacturing industry are not classified by country of birth, as in 1890, but by country of birth of parents. The returns, therefore, do not admit of any but a general comparison with those of the preceding census. There were, in 1900, 47,378 male glass workers in the United States. Of these, 14,737 were in Pennsylvania, 10,235 in Indiana, and considerable numbers in New Jersey, New York, and Ohio. The foreign-born workers numbered for the country as a whole, 10,779; the nativeborn of foreign parents, 13,916, and the native-born of native parents, 22,263. Only 420 male employees were negroes. Among employees of foreign parentage, those whose parents were born in Germany, Ireland, and Great Britain, in the order mentioned, had the largest representation. Data relative to glass workers are presented in the census of 1900, for females as well as males. These data are available for the country as a whole and for certain States. The total number of female employees reported for the United States was 2,621, and of these 1,028 were in Pennsylvania. The foreignborn numbered 337, and the native-born of foreign parents 867, for the country as a whole. Among females of foreign parentage, those whose parents were born in Germany, Ireland, and Great Britain, in the order mentioned, were present in the largest numbers.

The composition of the working force at Pittsburg, principal glass-manufacturing centers in 1890 and 190 the following statements:

Persons having either both parents born as specified or one paren specified and one parent native:

Austria-Hungary.

Canada, English..

Canada, French.

Germany..

Great Britain.

Ireland..

Italy..

Poland.

Russia..

Scandinavia.

Other countries..

Persons of mixed foreign parentage..
Persons of native parentage..

There were in the city of Pittsburg in 1890, 3,67 workers. The foreign-born numbered 923, the native-b parents 1,980, and the native-born of native parents 766. of German, British, and Irish birth had, in the order m largest representation among the foreign-born. In the 1890 to 1900 there was a decrease of almost 50 per cent i of male glass workers in Pittsburg. The figure for 190 The foreign-born numbered 483, the native-born of for 955, and the native-born of native parents, 419. Among t of foreign parentage, those whose fathers were born Ireland, and Great Britain, in the order mentioned, we the largest numbers. It will be seen from the data

presented that in the glass manufacturing industry employees of northern and western European birth greatly outnumbered the employees of southern and eastern European parentage, both in 1890 and in 1900. The proportion of employees of German, Irish, and British birth or parentage is very large in all the tables. As lately as 1900 the number of recent immigrants employed was very small.

HISTORY OF REPRESENTATIVE LOCALITIES.

The racial movements to the industry may also be further illustrated by the history of immigration to representative glass-manufacturing communities in different sections of the country. A series of the racial displacements in a number of such localities immediately follows:

FORD CITY, PA.

Ford City supports only two industrial establishments, one a plateglass factory and the other a pottery works. The latter is of little importance and employs only a very small number of immigrants. The total population of the town is about 2,600, and its history of immigration is contained in the history of the racial changes which have taken place in the glass plant.

The plate-glass plant was started in 1886, as the property of an important glass company, with a nucleus of Belgian, English, and German workers who were brought from other plants of the company in the United States to serve as skilled workers. All of the work at that time was done by hand, and native Americans served as unskilled laborers and were apprenticed with the idea of taking the place of the foreign skilled workman as the latter dropped out.

When this company first began operation in its factories in other sections of the United States, the English method of glass making was adopted. In 1885 a change was made to the Belgian method. In both instances skilled workers were imported from England first and afterwards from Belgium, and from sections from Germany where the Belgian methods were used. There were no skilled American workmen to be secured, as the plate-glass industry was new in America. The importation of foreign workmen was thus indispensable in establishing the plate-glass industry in this country. The skilled workmen among the Americans and recent immigrant races have learned their trade under Belgian tutoring.

After 1895, however, most of the American employees, except those who had become skilled workmen or who held responsible positions of an executive nature, were drawn away from the glass industry into the steel plants in and about Pittsburg by reason of the higher wages, and it was necessary for the company to look elsewhere for ordinary labor, as well as for material out of which to develop future skilled labor. As early as 1888 a few Poles, Russians, and Slovaks were secured, but not in sufficient numbers to meet the demands for unskilled labor until after 1890. They gradually took the place of American workers after that date, and at the present time not more than 20 per cent of the entire force of the plant is composed of Americans.

With the change to machine methods in the Ford City plant and the gradual exodus of the original skilled hand workers and of

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unskilled Americans to other industries, the demand for labor was met by a supply of Slovaks, Poles, and Russians. This displacement, however, had taken place previous to the introduction of machinery. In 1900 the superintendent of the plant realized the change which was taking place and that his plant faced a competition with the tin and steel mills, as well as other plate-glass plants, in the labor market. The supply of skilled labor was being reduced, and the material out of which future skilled workers could be drawn was being lowered by the racial change from American to cheap foreign labor.

In 1902 the total number of employees in the manufacturing department of the Ford City plant numbered about 560, consisting of 16 foremen, 290 skilled workmen (52 per cent), at an average rate of pay of 20 cents per hour, and 254 unskilled workmen, at an average pay of 13 cents per hour. An experiment had been tried to raise the level of the unskilled labor in 1900 by increasing the rate of pay of workers in the construction department from 12 cents per hour to 15 cents; but in 1902, out of 300 laborers in this department, there were less than 25 Americans even at this increased rate of pay, the rest of them being unskilled Slovaks, Poles, and Russians.

The plant was confronted therefore with (1) a lessening number of skilled glass workers; (2) an increasing number of unskilled Slovak, Polish, and Russian immigrants, who the company did not believe it could advance into skilled occupations; and (3) an unsuccessful competition for American labor with the various branches of the steel industry.

It soon became possible to substitute machinery for some of the skilled occupations, such as laying, grinding, and polishing, which the racial changes practically demanded. The Belgians and other skilled glass workers were retained in those positions requiring skill in hand work, while Americans and workmen of other races who possessed enough intelligence were put in charge of the machines. Each machine displaced several skilled hand workers, but the increase in the output required an increase of about the same number of unskilled workers in the casting rooms.

Within recent years not only have Poles and Slovaks come to Ford City, but also a number of Macedonians, together with a few Italians. Several racial movements may thus be distinguished in the history of the Ford City plate-glass plant, which can be grouped as follows:

First, the use of skilled glass workers imported by the company from England to plants in other parts of the United States and then brought to the new plant in Ford City.

Second, the change from the English methods of glass making to the Belgian method and the importation of Belgians and Germans to the various older plants of the company from where they were taken to serve as skilled workers in the new plant. At this time, a system of apprenticeship was also inaugurated in the hope that native Americans would learn glass making.

Third, the drawing away of native unskilled workmen into the steel mills and of skilled Belgians and English into new independent glass plants.

Fourth, the coming of Slovaks, Poles, Russians, and Macedonians into the unskilled occupations.