TABLE 170.-Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.

From information secured for 211 individuals in the preceding table it is seen that the entire number worked three months or more; 97.6 per cent six months or more; 89.1 per cent nine months or more, and 74.4 per cent twelve months during the past year. Of those who worked twelve months during the last year the foreign-born show a larger proportion than the native-born of foreign father, which in turn show a larger proportion than the native-born of native father. All of the native-born of foreign father worked six months or more, as compared with 97.6 per cent of the foreign-born and 97 per cent of the native-born of native father. The native-born of foreign father again show the largest and the native-born of native father the smallest proportion having worked nine months or more. Only one foreign race, the Magyar, shows a proportion who have worked less than six months. This race also shows the smallest proportion having worked each other specified length of time.

CHAPTER V.

INDUSTRIAL EFFECTS OF IMMIGRATION.

Immigrant employees and the organization of the plant Effect of employment of immigrants upon establishment of new industries.

IMMIGRANT EMPLOYEES AND THE ORGANIZATION OF THE PLANT.

The presence of a large immigrant labor supply can not be said to have had any effect on the use of machinery in the glass plant of Community B, because machine methods were introduced when the plant was started. Officials of the establishment claim that no effect of immigration upon the organization of the shops has been noticed. They assert that if there has been any effect it has been in another direction-the effect of the use of machinery upon the employment of immigrants. The native labor supply has not been sufficient to supply the demand for unskilled employees created by the employment of machine methods, and the immigrant laborers have taken the places of the Americans in these occupations.

The presence of non-English-speaking employees has necessitated to some extent the use of immigrant foremen, and occasionally the employment of interpreters. It has been found, however, that the Polish, Slovak, and Magyar workmen very quickly learn enough English to understand the ordinary commands. The need of foremen speaking the languages of these races is therefore practically eliminated, except in the case of raw immigrants, who are now rarely employed, partly because the foreign portion of the workmen of the company have settled permanently in the community, and because few, if any, of the recent immigrants coming to the United States go to this locality without first having been employed in some one of the more Eastern States. This plant, therefore, is less subject to the necessity of employing raw immigrants than for instance the plate-glass plants of Pennsylvania.

EFFECT OF EMPLOYMENT OF IMMIGRANTS UPON ESTABLISHMENT OF NEW INDUSTRIES.

The fact that the plate-glass plant is dependent upon a supply of immigrant labor is evident from the proportion of foreign employees to natives. It is also conceded by officials of the company who claim that it would have been impossible for the plant to have been established, in the first instance; and in the second instance, to have been maintained for any length of time, at the rates of wages paid, without a supply of cheap immigrant labor. The contrast between the controlling conditions under which the older Pennsylvania glass plants were established and those encountered at the plant of Community B is again presented in this connection. At the time of the

establishment of the older plants, such as those of Pennsylvania, the skilled labor was to be secured only in Europe, while the unskilled labor was composed of Americans. But when the factory in Community B began operations the limited skilled labor required was supplied by the native American machine runners and a few Polish "layers," while the unskilled gangs were easily recruited from the ranks of the immigrants. The conditions were practically reversed.

The miscellaneous businesses of the town are largely dependent upon the patronage of the foreign population, but it can not be said that their existence is due in any greater degree to the presence of immigrants than of natives, and should the latter have constituted the larger portion of the population they should still have been created and maintained. As a matter of fact, native merchants. complain of the presence of immigrants on the ground that if they were Americans the patronage of the stores would be incalculably greater on account of the greater diversity of needs. The two Polish stores found in the town are existing, of course, solely because of the presence of the Polish population.

CHAPTER VI.

HOUSING AND LIVING CONDITIONS.

Rent in its relation to standard of living-Boarders and lodgers-Size of apartments occupied-Size of households studied-Congestion-[Text Tables 171 to 182 and General Tables 109 to 120].

RENT IN ITS RELATION TO STANDARD OF LIVING.

The rent payments of the households of the glass workers of the community are chiefly important because of the insight which they afford into standards of living and living conditions. The first tabulation presented in this connection, which immediately follows, shows the average monthly rent payment per apartment, per room, and per sleeping room according to general nativity and race of head of household:

TABLE 171.-Average rent per month, by general nativity and race of head of household.

a Not computed, owing to small number involved.

The households whose heads were native-born in the table above show a considerably higher average rent payment per month per apartment, a slightly greater payment per month per room, and a very much larger rent payment per month per person than the foreign-born. The significant contrast between the native-born and foreign-born households is furnished by the relative showing as to rent payment per month per person, the low rental per person among the foreign-born households indicating a much higher degree of congestion as compared with the native-born. Among the households whose heads were foreign-born the low rent per month per person of 80 cents, as exhibited by the households whose heads are Magyars, shows a decidedly lower standard of living and much greater congestion among the households of this race in comparison with the German and Polish households.

The range in monthly rent payments for apartments is exhibited by the following table, which shows by general nativity and race of head of household the percentage of households paying each specified rent per month per apartment:

TABLE 172.-Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per apartment, by general nativity and race of head of household.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

The greater proportion of the total number of households pay under $10 per month per apartment; a relatively large proportion pay under $7.50. Equal proportions of the native-born of native father pay under $10 and $10 or over. Relatively low rent per apartment is more general among the foreign-born than among the native-born of native father. Of the foreign-born households 76.7 per cent pay under $10 per month per apartment; 40.7 per cent pay under $7.50.

The per cent of households paying each specified monthly rent per room is shown in the table next presented according to general nativity and race of head of household.

TABLE 173.—Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per room, by general nativity and race of head of household.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]