tendency are M. R. Cohen's "Juris- | Winds of Doctrine contains an imprudence as a Philosophical Disci- portant discussion of "Modernism and pline" (Jour. of Philos., April 24, Christianity," in which the author 1913), and H. A. Overstreet's “Philos- takes the position that Modernism is ophy and our Legal Situation" (ibid., not Christianity; in other words, that Christianity consists essentially in Feb. 27, 1913). the orthodox faith. The author writes not as an advocate of orthodoxy, but rather as a critic of liberalism on the ground that it is an attempt to retain the name without the substance of historical Christianity. Opposed to this view is a volume entitled Foundations: A Statement of Christian Belief in Terms of Modern Thought, by seven Oxford men. The book is an at of Christianity that shall be in agreement with the more advanced theories of theological, philosophical and Biblical criticism, and yet be inspired with a positive religious spirit. The question of the teaching of ethics in colleges has received considerable attention during the year. The subject had been one of the topics for discussion at the 1912 meeting of the Western Philosophical Association, and a paper contributed to that discussion, "The Essentials of a First Course in Ethics," by G. D. Walcott, appeared in the Journal of Philosophy at the opening of the year. More re-tempt to elaborate an interpretation cently G. C. Cox has published in the same Journal (June 19, 1913) an article entitled "The Case Method in the Study and Teaching of Ethics," in which the author has described his Three important books have apattempt to use in the teaching of ethics the "case method" of teaching peared that deal with religious problaw, for some time successfully em- lems from the standpoint and by the philosophy. All three ployed in the Harvard Law School. method of The student collects and examines the writers are idealistic in their fundaactual decisions which authorities act-mental positions. Watson's Interpreing for society have delivered on tation of Religious Experience is inmoral questions. Those who have teresting for its criticism of recent Bosancriticized this plan, for example, H. A. tendencies, such as realism. Overstreet and T. R. Powell (in Jour. quet's Value and Destiny of the Inof Philos., Aug. 14 and 28), have dividual, comprising the Gifford Lecacknowledged its suggestiveness and tures given at Edinburgh in 1912, is the ethical importance of the material the sequel to the author's volume on Individuality and Value. The fundacontained in legal literature. mental principles advanced in the earlier book are here applied to the genesis and relations of the individual. The only important book of the year in this field is G. E. Moore's Ethics (Holt). Although published in the Home University Library, this book is by no means a mere popular hand-book on the subject. It is a restatement in a more straightforward and effective way of the author's peculiar views, already set forth in his Principia Ethica. It is an extremely original defense of the thesis that rightness consists in the causing of an objective, intrinsic good, that is indefinable and independent of pleasure or desire. The defect of the book lies in the author's tendency tediously to elaborate points which, while orig inal and more often than not true, are nevertheless obvious and sometimes even trivial. Philosophy of Religion.-A number of important books in this field by both American and English writers have appeared. George Santayana's Especially notable are the discussion of the relation of mind and body, and the author's distinction between God and the Absolute, the former belonging to the world of appearance, the latter being the ultiRoyce's Problem of mate reality. Christianity contains the lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute in Boston, and afterwards at Manchester College, Oxford, on the Hibbert Foundation. These lectures are an application of the author's "philosophy of loyalty" to the doctrines of Christianity. The religious experience is inThe terpreted as essentially social. central teachings of Christianity are, according to the author, the universal spiritual brotherhood and the salvation of the otherwise lost individual through loyalty to this brotherhood. XXX. THE MEDICAL SCIENCES 66 ANATOMY G. CARL HUBER General Survey of Progress.-The graphs marks a distinct advance in year 1913 has been one of general the general knowledge of the subject. progress in anatomy. The anatomi- A fourth edition of McMurrich's The cal laboratories of America are in Development of the Human Body a stage of transition. In the great (Blakiston, 1913) has appeared, in majority of the better medical schools part rewritten, thoroughly revised and they are now manned by teachers giv- enlarged. ing full time to teaching and research. Growth Phenomena.-As a result of The transition from part-time" numerous weighings, made on mateteachers to "full-time" trained teach-rial taken from albino rats of known ers has been so rapid during the year ages, Hatai concludes that from a that it has been difficult adequately standpoint of curve fitting the interto meet the needs. The list of pub-nal organs are no more variable than lications during 1913 is long and the other parts of the body if cerdiversified; in the following pages a selection of the more important publications is reviewed, indicative of the scope and character of the research activities of American anatomic laboratories. tain modifying factors are taken into consideration. C. M. Jackson gives in tabular form the results of numerous weighings made of material taken from albino rats of stated ages, to determine the postnatal growth and variability of the body and various organs; a comprehensive discussion adds value to this contribution. Investigators of growth phenomena as a rule record length and weight obtained at certain intervals, an average being made of a large number of Of general works Charles S. Minot's two books, Die Methode der Wissenschaft und andere Reden and Moderne Probleme der Biologie (Fischer, Jena, 1913), contain addresses delivered in America and as exchange professor in the Universities of Berlin and Jena. Dr. Churchill Carmalt, before his un-data thus collected. The increase of timely death in January, 1905, had made an extensive study of the morphology of the salivary glands. In Contributions to the Anatomy and Development of the Salivary Glands of Mammalia (Special Studies conducted under the Crocker Research Fund, Columbia University Press), G. S. Huntington and H. von W. Schulte have edited Carmalt's notes, which they have greatly extended by numerous personal observations, the whole forming a series of eight monographs, published in one comprehensive volume, dealing with the morphology and development of the mammalian salivary structures. This series of mono the dry substance of the brain has been fully studied by Donaldson and his associates. Lowrey has studied the increase of the dry substance in tissues and organs of the albino rat other than the nervous system. The dry substance of the albino rat increases from about 11.7 per cent. at birth to 29.9 per cent. at 20 days, to about 33 per cent. at 10 weeks, and decreases to about 31.5 per cent. in the one-year rat. M. M. Miller has contributed a study on the prenatal growth of the spinal cord in the human embryo. Observations on the growth of spayed albino rats lead Stotsenberg to conclude that the ovaries tend to retard growth in The conclusions reached are based on length and tend to retard fat forma- careful reconstructions. The reptilian tion, since spayed rats were from heart has been used repeatedly in three to four per cent. larger than experimental work bearing on the unspayed rats of the same age. The physiology of the heart. A careful increase in weight is accounted for study of its structure and the distriby a greater fat deposition. In semi-bution of nervous elements, therespayed albino rats the presence of the remaining ovary is sufficient to control normal growth. fore, was desirable. This is supplied by the investigations of H. Laurens (ibid.). A. M. Miller (Am. Jour. Anat., XV), as a result of studies on the development of the thoracic duct of chick, allies himself with the advocates of the view that the thoracic duct originates independently Cytology. Wiemann (Am. Jour. Anat., XIV) has endeavored to determine the number of chromosomes in man by counting them in somatic mitotic figures. The material used was a well fixed human embryo of of the veins and lymph sacs, having 8 mm. These studies show that in origin_in_mesenchymal spaces. Papthe human embryo the somatic mito- penheimer (ibid., XIV) has studied ses display more than 24 chromo- the thymus of frogs and rats by hissomes, the number usually given by tologic methods and by growth in recent observers. Wiemann's count va- vitro. It could not be definitely deried from 33 to 38, 34 being the num- cided that an internal secretion exber most frequently met with; Wini- ists. In cultures in vitro the recticuwarter, however, in a recent publica- lar cells presented characteristics tion (Arch. d. Biol., XXVII), has which confirm their epithelial rather given the number as 47 in the male than mesenchymal origin. and 48 in the female. On the basis of his counts Wiemann inclines to the belief that the somatic and spermatozonial numbers of chromosomes may perhaps be not actually identical, as has been supposed. Notwithstanding the number of investigators who have studied spermiogenesis in mammalia, many of the details of this process are not fully agreed upon. J. R. Oliver (ibid.) has enriched the literature by a careful study of the spermiogenesis of the fur seal. Certain disputed points, as, for instance, the origin of the caudal tube from a series of filaments, are satisfactorily answered. The behavior of the centrioles was followed. (See also XXVII, Zoology.) Blood and Blood- and Lymph-Vas- arches connected with the rete testis. cular Systems.-J. A. Badertscher F. P. Johnson (Am. Jour. Anat., XIV), (ibid., XV) presents evidence which in a series of papers dealing with shows that the granules of the eosino- the development of the intestinal philous cells are exogenous in their na- mucosa of human embryos, contribture, the products of degenerating ery- utes a study of the development of throcytes and muscular tissue. A. J. the mucosa of the large intestine. Brown (Anat. Rec., VII) has presented Numerous reconstructions were made. a careful study of the development of As development proceeds the epithethe pulmonary veins and has shown lial tube presents longitudinal folds, that they have their anlage in an these by segmentation are replaced especially developed part of an in- by villi which reach their maximum different splanchnic plexus, communi- development in embryos between 110 cating with the systemic veins by mm. and 140 mm., then gradually means of two well-defined connections. disappear. The glands develop by Internal Organs.-Addison and How (ibid., XV) have studied the changes affected by lung tissue immediately after birth. The lung tissue in late fetal life constitutes 70 to 80 per cent. of the entire area in a section; 40 to 60 per cent. at the end of one hour of breathing and 20 to 30 per cent. two days after birth. It was determined that in the prenatal lung the future air passages are filled with a fluid. Huber and Curtis (Anat. Rec., VII), by use of especially devised methods of maceration, have reported that they were able to tease out completely the seminiferous tubules of certain mammals and to show that these tubules presented no blind ends, all forming arches or systems of epithelial budding. This same author | the control unoperated right peroneal (ibid.) in a further paper has shown nerves of the same animals. An inthat the villi and glands become crease of the number of nerve fibers shorter and broader in a distended in the regenerating nerves is noted intestine and may entirely disappear and a decrease in the number and with extreme distension. It seems the size of the nerve fibers in the probable that in normal peristalsis the control nerves. R. M. Harvey (Anat. villi change their shape and thus Rec., VII) with a simple method of bring about a more thorough mixing reconstruction of the bilateral basal of the intestinal contents. Scammon ganglia of the human brain has dem(ibid.) has given a thorough and com-onstrated their asymmetry. C. H. prehensive account of the development Heuser (Am. Jour. Anat., XV) has of the liver and gall bladder of elas- presented a study of the morphogenemobranchs, based on numerous recon- sis of the ventricles of the pig's brain structions. Whitehead (Anat. Rec., and certain other mammals. Huber VII) has described a case of what and Guild, J. B. Johnston and Meappears as true anatomic hermaphro- | Cotter have recorded observations on ditism in a person with external gen- the nervus terminalis in manimalia. itals and secondary sex characters of Johnston (Jour. Comp. Neur., XXIII) a female, with ovary in the pelvis and was the first to note the presence of two ectopic testes. The seminiferous this nerve in reptilian and mammatubules presented a rudimentary lian embryos; McCotter (ibid.) deterstructure. The interstitial cells of mined its presence in adult dogs and the testes appeared quite normal. It cats by gross dissection; and Huber is obvious that the case does not lend and Guild (Anat. Rec., VII) by means support to the view that the secondary of a silver technique were able to male characteristics are dependent on stain the nervus terminalis differenan internal secretion of the intersti- tially in the rabbit, trace its full tial cells. Lord (ibid.) has made a distribution and note the presence of study of the temporo-mandibular ar- numerous sympathetic neurones in its ticulation, and finds that the jaw is course. Huber and Guild (ibid.), in depressed in the ordinary opening of a study of the spinal ganglia made the mouth by the unassisted action by use of the pyridin-silver technique, of the external pterygoid muscles. note the development of collaterals This is quite contrary to the generally and protoplasmic branches, terminataccepted view. ing in end discs, late in prenatal and early in postnatal life, and they therefore regard these structures not as an evidence of a collateral regeneration phenomena, but as an expression of normal cytomorphosis. J. B. Johnston (Jour. Comp. Neur., XXIII) has further contributed an extensive monograph on the morphology of the septum, hippocampus, and palial commissures of the brain, giving an excellent account of the evolution of the telencephalon, beginning with the primitive brain and taking into consideration the factors and processes by which the mammalian brain has been determined. Kuntz (ibid.) finds that the cranial sympathetic ganglia bear the same genetic relation to the cerebrospinal system as do other parts of the sympathetic nervous system. He has further studied the ganglia and nerve terminations of the digestive tube by means of the intravitam methylene blue and silver Neurology. Bean (ibid.) suggests that the term "cranial nerves" is a misnomer, presenting the term "cephalic nerves, and has reclassified these nerves by omitting optic and olfactory nerves and vagus and spinal accessory nerves, since they are not true cephalic nerves. The remaining cephalic nerves are grouped so as to form 11 pairs, each with special designation. Black (Jour. Comp. Neur., XXIII) has presented a detailed study of the central nervous system of a case of cyclops. The same author in a further study (ibid.) considers the cytotechtonic structure of the cortex of this brain. Greenman (ibid.) by careful countings and measurements has determined the number and size of regenerating peripheral medullated nerve fibers after sectioning of the left peroneal nerve of albino rats of varying ages and has compared the results with similar observations on Ranson methods. Malone (Anat. Rec., VII) tibular lip and the spiral organ, the has recognized a coarse granular auditory hairs projecting directly into structure consisting of relatively the chambers of this membrane, so smooth granules of chromophilic sub- that the vibrations of this membrane stance in cells of somatic motor nerve are transmitted to them. chains with no transition stages be- (ibid.) has noted that in the spinal tween such and nerve cells in affer- cord and medulla of the albino rat, ent chains, differing also in struc- stained after his pyridin-silver methture from nerve cells in visceral od, the cerebro-spinal fasciculus is motor chains. It is possible, there- differentially colored. A topographic fore, to determine the function of certain types of nerve cells by means of structural characteristics. This author has shown, for instance, that the lateral motor nuclei of the cranial nerves are to be classed as somatic motor nuclei. In a further study this author states that the three types of muscle are innervated by three distinct types of nerve cells. Thus by recognizing an intermediate type as innervating heart muscle, the nucleus cardiacus nervi vagi was determined as situated in the middle of the vagus sympathetic nucleus. C. W. Prentiss (Am. Jour. Anat., XIV) has shown that the tectorial membrane of the inner ear is a delicate chambered reticular structure attached to the ves description of this fasciculus is given, its structure discussed, and the presence of numerous non-medullated nerve fibers noted. The same author (Jour. Comp. Neur., XXIII) by using the same technique on the spinal cord of the cat observed that the nonmedullated fibers arising from the small cells of the spinal ganglia could be traced through the dorsal root to the tract of Lissauer, where they constitute the great majority of its nonmedullated fibers. E. V. Smith (Am. Jour. Anat., XIV) has presented observations made with the Cajal silver method on the sensory ganglia of birds. A detailed statement of the types of sensory neurones observed is given. PHYSIOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY In agreement with the theory of Cannon and Washburn (A. Y. B., 1912, p. 703) Carlson found that, as a rule, the stronger contractions give rise to the sensation of hunger. This sensation is caused by the stimulation of afferent nerve fibers in the muscle layers. The contractions are inhibited reflexly from the oral cavity by chewing, by stimulating the taste organs (sweet, bitter, etc.) and by the swallowing act; they are also inhibited when water (cold or warm), coffee, tea, beer, etc., are introduced into the stomach directly; local anesthetics like orthoform, chlo reton, phenol, etc., when used in therapeutic doses do not inhibit the contractions. During the gastric contraction there is an augmentation of the knee-jerk and the pulse rate, while the vasomotor tonus appears to be less stable. The Stomach.--In a young man impaired. who, 16 years before, acquired a benign complete stenosis of the esophagus, and who feeds himself through a permanent gastric fistula, Carlson found the opportunity to make some studies on the physiology of the stomach, reminding one of the celebrated studies of Beaumont made on the Canadian Alexis St. Martin some 90 years ago. For the present he has studied mainly the movements of the empty stomach and has reported his observations in five articles, published in the American Journal of Physiology (XXXI, 151, 175, 212, and 318; XXXII, 245). He found that the empty stomach (in a state of hunger) exhibits two types of rhythmical movements: one is relatively feeble but continuous, with a constant rate of contraction of 20 seconds' duration; the other falls into periods of relatively strong contractions that may Carbon Dioxide. The assumption end in tetanus. These movements are of Haldane, Henderson, and others greatly diminished or absent alto- that carbon dioxide acts essentially gether when health and vigor are as a stimulating agent, has not been |