XXIX. PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY

PSYCHOLOGY

HERBERT SIDNEY LANGFELD

says psychology needs introspection as little as do the sciences of chemistry and physics. For example, a registration of the speech mechanism will probably give us all we need to know about the thought processes. He adds that it would be better if subjects were dumb and experimenters deaf. M. W. Calkins severely criticizes Watson's position in "Psychology and the Behaviorist" (Psych. Bull., July, 1913). J. R. Angell, in his article "Behavior as a Category of Psychology" (Psych. Rev., July, 1913), is much less radical in his views than Watson. Although he says, "I want to see just how ideas and feelings embody themselves in action," yet he admits that "what happens between the time a stimulus affects a peripheral organ and the later time at which some reaction is made we can often only judge with approximate accuracy provided the individual concerned tells us what has passed in his mind during the interim." Among the introspectionists themselves there is discussion as to method. E. B. Titchner, in "The Method of Examination" (Am. Jour. of Psych., July, 1913), criticizes the method of the Würzburg School in experimenting on the thought processes as affording neither sufficient objective check nor opportunity of repetition, and advocates a method similar to that of N. Ach, which employs systematic introspection.

General. Important among the dis- | It" (Psych. Rev., March, 1913). He cussions of fundamental principles is E. L. Thorndike's article, "IdeaMotor Action" (Psych. Rev., March, 1913). He contends, contrary to the theories of James, Washburn and others, that it is false that an idea tends to produce the act which is like it. According to the results of a questionnaire sent to the members of the Psychological Association, a large majority agree with his views. The relation of psychology to philosophy is at present a most vital problem both from the practical side of the relation of the departments in the colleges and from the deeper theoretical significance. R. M. Ogden, in "The Relation of Psychology to Philosophy and Education" (ibid., May, 1913), presents examples from the examination of the higher thought processes to show the advantages of a closer union between psychology on the one side and philosophy and education on the other. The joint meeting of the Philosophical and Psychological Association at Yale in December had this same problem as the chief topic of discussion. The behaviorists movement is emphasizing more and more the close connection between psychology and the natural sciences. A recent important work is M. Parmelee's Science of Human Behavior; Biological and Psychological Foundations (MacMillan's), which discusses physico-chemical behavior, behavior of the lower animals, the evolution of animal behavior, and the principles of human behavior.

Psychological Methods.-The opposition to the introspective method referred to last year (A. Y. B., 1912, p. 689) continues with the same vigor. J. B. Watson, the chief exponent of this movement in America, defends his position in an article, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views

Experimental Human Psychology.To begin with investigations on the sensory processes, there is a paper on "The Sensory Threshold for Faradic Stimulation in Man," by E. G. Martin, E. L. Porter and L. B. Rice (Psych. Rev., May, 1913), which describes an accurate method for obtaining very constant measurements of threshold for faradic current. S. I.

1913), shows that for most people the morning hours are the best for learning. K. M. Dallenbach, in "The Relation of Memory Error to Time Interval" (Psych. Rev., July, 1913), states that the certainty of the observer's reply is in direct relation to the fidelity of the answer. F. L. Wells, in "Practice and the Work Curve" (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., 1913), calls attention to the ever-increasing importance of individual differences. G. C. Myers, in a study in "Incidental Memory" (Arch. of Psych., Feb., 1913), shows what a strong factor our interest is in remembering details of even familiar objects. These results are of value for law and education.

Comparative Human Psychology.The treatises upon child psychology, upon character and mental groups, upon heredity, etc., are very numerous. The Psychological Bulletin for Oct. 15, 1913, gives a good summary of this literature. The interest in folk psychology seems to be on the increase in America, stimulated by the visit of Felix Krüger, the German exchange professor. In his article, "Magical Factors in the First Development of Human Labor" (Am. Jour. of Psych., April, 1913), he says: "We are unable to understand the psychological continuity of human development towards an individual and social form of life without genetically taking into account the magical and religious reaction of primitive mind upon every impression, experience, and to every situation of vital importance."

Franz, in a paper on "The Accuracy of Localization of Touch Stimuli on Different Bodily Segments" (ibid., March, 1913), shows that light touch is more accurately located than heavier pressure. C. E. Ferree states in "The Fluctuation of Liminal Visual Stimuli of Point Area" (Am. Jour. of Psych., July, 1913) that the fluctuation of liminal visual stimuli is due to adaptation and recovery of the eye and not, as has been asserted, to accommodation of that organ. Among the studies of the higher mental processes, R. Dodges's paper, "Mental Work, A Study in Psycho Dynamics" (Psych. Rev., Jan., 1913), is a model treatise from a behaviorist point of view. It has been found that in calorimeter tests the pulse rate is directly related to the amount of metabolism. It is assumed that the latter is directly related to the amount of mental work. Therefore Dodge has measured this amount by the pulse rate. He shows that the pulse of students during examination is more rapid during the first part of the period, when, as some assert, most of the mental work is performed. Most of the investigations on the higher processes continue to employ more or less introspection. R. Pintner maintains, in "Inner Speech During Silent Reading" (ibid., March, 1913), that articulation during reading is a habit but not necessary to the understanding. W. B. PillsLury affirms, in the "Fluctuation of Attention and the Refactory Period" (Jour. of Phil., Psych., and Scientific Methods, March, 1913), that the short waves of attention are related to the Abnormal Psychology. The inlatest period and period of recovery fluence of the Freudian method of of the sensory neurons. Several trea- psycho-analysis for the treatment of tises on the perception of rhythm in- mental diseases and the explanation clude those of P. F. Swindle, "On the of dreams and abnormal condition is Inheritance of Rhythm" (Am. Jour. as noticeable as ever. A new journal of Psych., April, 1913), and of C. S. which has just appeared is the PsychoRuckmich, "The Rôle of Kinesthesis analytic Review; a Journal Devoted in the Perception of Rhythm" (ibid., to an Understanding of Human ConJuly, 1913). H. L. Hollingsworth duct, edited by W. A. White and S. E. states, in "Judgments of Similarity Jelliffe. Freud's The Interpretation and Difference" (Psych. Rev., July, of Dreams (MacMillan's) has just 1913), that one is more consistent been translated from the German. when judging if things are similar The Journal of Abnormal Psychology than if they are different. There are has published several important papers also a number of investigations on by followers of the Freudian prinmental efficiency. E. O. Finken- ciples, including "A Simple Fobia," binder, in the "The Curve of Forget- by Ernest Jones (June-July), and ting" (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., "How Far is Environment

Re

sponsible for Delusions," by E. (ibid., July-Aug., 1913); Yerkes has E. Southard and A. W. Stearns found that both these characteristics (June-July). E. G. Boring has dis- are inherited. J. F. Shepherd and cussed "Introspection in Dementia F. S. Breed have described the peckPrecox" (Am. Jour. of Psych., April, ing instinct of the chick in "Matura1913). Mental tests continue to be tion and Use in the Development of used on defectives with good results, an Instinct" (ibid., July-Aug., 1913). although, as F. M. Freeman says W. Craig's article, "The Stimulation (Psych. Bull., July, 1913), "the most and the Inhibition of Ovulation in widespread attitude towards tests is Birds and Mammals" (ibid., Mayconstructively critical. There is a June, 1913), throws light on another belief that tests are good for some- instinct. W. S. Hunter has written thing, but that careful testing of the a monograph on "The Delayed Reactests themselves is necessary in order tion in Animals and Children" (Beto determine the limits and conditions havior Monographs, Vol. II, No. 1). of their usefulness." H. H. Goddard, L. W. Sackett, in his monograph "The in "Standard Methods for giving the Canadian Porcupine: a Study of the Binet Test" (Bull. No. 10, Vineland Learning Process" (ibid., No. 2), Training School), has come to the reports investigations of the porcuconclusion that only trained experi- pine in learning specific reaction and menters are capable of getting relia-in discrimination." S. I. Franz reble results in the Binet tests. (See ports, in "Observations of the Prefe:also XVI, The Laboratory in Social ential Use of the Right and Left Research.) Hands of Monkeys" (Jour. of Animal Behavior, March-April, 1913), that of six monkeys one preferred the right hand and two the left hand. K. S. Lashley and J. B. Watson report, in "Notes" on the Development of a Young Monkey" (ibid.), the temporal sequence in the development of such instincts as grasping, sneezing, motor responses to sound, reflex grasping of an object, etc.

Animal Psychology.—As in the past | few years, there have been a number of excellent systematic investigations which may be grouped under the two headings of sensation and perception, ard instinct and learning, processes. Under the first group may be mentioned H. C. Stevens's "Acquired Specific Reaction to Color in Oregonia Gracilis" (Jour. of Animal Behavior, May-June, 1913), which reports that when crabs were put in aquaria and covered with different colored glass they acquired a positive reaction towards the particular color used. J. B. and M. I. Watson have found, in "A Study of the Responses of Rodents to Monochromatic Light" (ibid., Jan.-Feb., 1913), that the rodents responded only to different intensities of monochromatic light. F. M. Gregg and C. A. McPheeters, in the "Behavior of Raccoons to a Temporal Series of Stimuli" (ibid., July-Aug., 1913), affirm that there is no adequate proof of Cole's assumption that raccoons use imagery in the learning process. H. C. Bingham, in an investigation on chicks reported in "Size and Form Perception in Gallus Domesticus" (ibid., March-April, 1913), found that chicks could make accurate size discriminations. In the second group is an important study by R. M. Yerkes, "The Heredity of Savageness and Wildness in Rats"

Applied Psychology.-In educational psychology emphasis continues to be laid upon the problem of grading and of measuring efficiency. In the Journal of Educational Psychology are W. Pyle's "Standards of Mental Efficiency" (Feb., 1913) and M. Calfee's "College Freshmen and Four General Intelligence Tests" (April, 1913). I. R. and A. J. Rosanoff have made extensive tests on school children and have found a definite correlation between association of words and menta! capacity ("A Study of Association in Children," Psych. Rev., Jan., 1913). The first volume of E. L. Thorndike's Educational Psychology, entitled The Original Nature of Man (Teachers' College), and P. M. Magnusson's Psychology as Applied to Education (Silver, Burdett & Co.) have appeared. Psychological principles continue to be applied to all forms of practical life. J. H. Wigmore, in Principles of Judicial Truth as Given by Logic, Psychology and General Ex

perience (Little, Brown & Co.), dis- | In "The Mind of the Juryman" (Cencusses narration, memory, motive, tury Mag., Aug., 1913) Münsterberg emotion, bias, habit, etc., in testi- describes a series of tests to determonial and circumstantial evidence. mine the factors influencing the final H. Münsterberg has shown further decision of a jury. It was found with possibilities of the practical applica- men that it was the argument which tion of psychology. His American changed the vote and not the knowPatriotism (Moffatt, Yard & Co.) con- ledge of how the other men voted. tains an essay on "Psychology in the Women, on the other hand remained, Navy," which was delivered as an ad- in general, unmoved by the argument, dress before the Naval War College. ! and were more susceptible to example.

PHILOSOPHY

RALPH BARTON PERRY

General Philosophy, Metaphysics has appeared during the year is conand Theory of Knowledge.-With the tained in the articles of the English exception of the interest in religion, philosopher S. Alexander, entitled which will be discussed below, the two interests that have been most prominent among English-speaking philosophers during the past year have been the elaboration and criticism of the Bergsonian philosophy, and the controversy between realism and idealism.

"Collective Willing and Truth" (Mind, Jan. and April, 1913). He defines truth as coherent social belief, as goodness is coherence of wills in society. The second article contains an interesting discussion of the relation between truth and beauty. The articles are significant of the extent An authorized interpretation of to which a large admixture of pragBergson by the well-known radical matism is consistent with realistic Edouard LeRoy has been translated first principles. W. T. Marvin, in his and published under the title, A New First Book in Metaphysics, has prePhilosophy: Henri Bergson. An au- sented the American new realism in thorized translation of the Introduc- concise textbook form. F. J. E. Woodtion to Metaphysics makes virtually bridge, in his article "The Deception all of Bergson's works available in of the Senses" (Jour. of Philos., Jan. English. The best critical articles on 2, 1913), has contributed to the realishis philosophy are those written by tic theory of perception. G. Fullerton, A. O. Lovejoy under the title "The in his articles on "Percept and Object Practical Tendencies of Bergsonism" in Common Sense and in Philosophy" (Int. Jour. of Ethics, April and July, (ibid., Jan. 30 and March 13, 1913), 1913). The first of these articles is has appealed to common sense in supa critique of Bergson's anti-intellec- port of a realistic view. W. B. Pittualism, and the second an interesting kin ("Time and the Percept," ibid., discussion of the relations between June 5, 1913) has attempted upon Bergsonism and the syndicalist philos-realistic grounds to explain the prinophy as represented by M. Sorel. cipal difficulties that arise in conGeorge Santayana's "Philosophy of Henri Bergson" (in his Winds of Doctrine) is remarkable for the felicity and acuteness of its characterization. F. Thilly's presidential address, "Romanticism and Rationalism," before the American Philosophical Association in December, 1912, and since published in the Philosophical Review (March, 1913) was largely devoted to a very telling arraignment of Bergson as a romanticist.

nection with the relation of real and perceptual time. These articles illustrate a tendency among realists to concentrate attention upon the problem of perception. The German realist O. Külpe, well known to English readers through his earlier books and articles, has recently published a systematic defense of realism under the title Die Realisierung, which is notable for being one of the few signs of an interest in this point of view in The most important constructive the native land of idealism. In Engstatement of the realistic position that | lish-speaking countries realism is at