HYDRO-ELECTRIC PRACTICE A PRACTICAL MANUAL OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER AND ITS DISTANT TRANSMISSION BY H. A. E. C. VON SCHON CIVIL AND HYDRAULIC ENGINEER; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS OF THE UNIVERSITY CF CALIFORNIA PREFACE THE economical transmission of electric energy to distances great and small, the rapidly increasing utilization of electro-motive power in industrial establishments, and the advent of the electric interurban railroads are responsible for the marked movement of impressing waterpowers to the service of generating electric current; and now waterpower, which had been almost relegated to obscurity by the perfection of the steam-engine, is not only regaining but even exceeding its former importance as an economical prime power source. It is entirely within the facts to state that a normally conditioned hydro-electric power plant can successfully compete with the most refined steam-power plant and the lowest priced fuel, natural gas. No wonder then that water-powers are to-day being sought after with feverish activity, and that some remarkable successes have been achieved, but also that many disastrous failures must be recorded. Hydro-electric power development is a much more complex undertaking than a large majority of the promoters of such enterprises realize when the subject is first approached, but which is most forcibly impressed upon them when the carrying out of the project is seriously attempted. Unfortunately, the most dangerous pitfalls are encountered at the beginning of the undertaking, and unless these are properly guarded against the finished work may disclose some incurable defects. Developments of the important natural resources of mines, of forests, and of manufacturing and transportation projects are rarely undertaken except upon the findings of recognized authorities on these respective subjects; not so, however, with hydro-electric power propositions, which are most frequently begun in a hap-hazard sort of fashion, with the stream and a fall as assumed assets, while the market, constancy of output, cost of product, riparian rights, and numerous other controlling features remain undetermined until some later day. Hence promoters of hydro-electric projects have not found the investing public at all eager to take their securities, because of the general and well-grounded impression that their presentations are not entitled to the same degree 174285 of confidence as other undertakings command, nor can there be any hope for a tide in their favor until such confidence be inspired. Publicity of the realities of a subject will always carry conviction of merit, if such there be; and much of the reluctance of capital to recognize the indubitable value of investments in hydro-electric power plants is no doubt due to the paucity of the proper sort of educating literature on this subject. This at least is the judgment of the author, born of the experience gained by some fifteen years of exclusive hydro-electric power practice, and this is the reason and purpose of this volume,-to place within reach of the promoter, investor, and practitioner an analytical treatment of hydro-electric practice in all its phases from inception to realization. This subject is treated in two parts; the first is entitled "Analysis of a Hydro-electric Project," and is written for the layman, being devoid of technical treatment, and may therefore be characterized as the commercial essence of the subject. The author believes that an intelligent perusal of this first part will insure the reader against those errors of commission and omission which cause most of the failures in these projects. No engineering training or experience is required clearly to follow and fully to appreciate and understand the presentation of the analysis, which covers the topic as completely as can be done without the introduction of the technic. CHAPTER I. treats of the market of electric current, where it may be found and how its value is readily determined. This is purely a commercial subject and ranks first in importance in the analysis. CHAPTER II. discusses the power opportunity, how the available flow can be ascertained and the fall, and from these the power output on which the project may be safely based. CHAPTER III. relates to the feasibility and practicability of the development. It treats of questions of riparian rights, Federal and State control of streams, economical limitations and of the investment balance. CHAPTER IV. gives a non-technical synopsis of the cost of such a project, with general reference to the separate features of the required works and equipment; and CHAPTER V., which closes the analysis, reviews the value of the project as an investment and suggests its proper presentation. In this part are incorporated sixteen diagrams, from which the reciprocals of hydraulic, mechanical, and electrical power, horse-power and kilowatts, the flow over spillways and from reservoirs, fixed charges of and revenues from hydro-electric plants, and the approximate quantities for dams, foundations, power houses, embankments, bulkheads, and transmission lines may be readily ascertained. Other subjects, such as drainage areas, precipitation belts, and report and plans, are suitably illustrated. PART II., "Designing and Equipping the Plant," is written for the student and practitioner. The arrangement is in the logical sequence of the pursuance of the plan. The aim of the author has been to render the treatment complete in all its phases, with the exception of presupposing a knowledge of the principles of surveying and the rudiments of hydraulics, hydrostatics, and dynamics. Each subject involving static or dynamic principles is analyzed from its basic functions, and all formulas are developed in elementary progression; wherever practicable without complexity of methods or deductions, the useful constants are reduced to diagrammatical forms, which become available for ready reference in application. All features of importance are illustrated by sketches or views from existing plants, chiefly such as have been designed and constructed by the author, and the quantities of materials for all structures are given, for useful units, in tables or diagrams. CHAPTER VI. treats of the surveys, embracing examination of maps, reconnaissance, topographic, stadia and photo-topographic operations, triangulation and levelling, flow measurements by different methods and deductions of run-off from precipitation and evaporation. CHAPTER VII. deals with development programmes. This discussion covers the many possibilities presented by various conditions, with illustrated examples of the most important and frequent occurrences. CHAPTER VIII. embraces structural types, beginning with definition of terms and methods, including the theory and constants of concrete-steel construction, methods of coffering preparatory to dam and power-house construction, with tables of quantities for dikes, cribs, sheet pile and wall curtains, and the various types of cut-off structures. The treatment of dams and spillways is introduced by an exhaustive analysis of the basic theories of pressure and resistance and of all the underlying principles, with original determinations of practical constants |