heavily in this capital equipment. Under the best of conditions a great deal of human labor is necessary in tobacco culture and dairying. On one farm an outlay of $1,500 for labor is noted.

Manures in large quantities are composted on the farms. First collected in manure pits or cellars under the barns in the New England fashion, then deposited in great piles in the fields, where it is allowed to rot, the manure is finally applied with a spreader or a fork in the spring or fall. Barnyard manure suffices for top dressing hay land, for potatoes, and for corn. For tobacco and potatoes commercial fertilizers of several sorts are applied at an annual expense of $250 to $1,200 yearly, or, in some cases, more than $50 per acre. In the application of fertilizers of all sorts, there is some evidence that the Hebrews are using somewhat better judgment, both in the kind and in the quantity applied, and one or two, at least, are making some practical experiments; in general, however, they are content to follow the methods of their American neighbors.

The buildings and permanent improvements on nearly all of the better farms are excellent. The houses are large, well built of wood or brick, with plenty of porches and piazzas, and almost always surrounded by fine old trees and a large yard. The barns are more or less out of repair, but are large basement structures, with a wood house and machinery and carriage shed attached. A few of the old New England style-barn, carriage house, woodshed, and dwelling all under connecting roofs-are seen. On the poorer farms the buildings are very much dilapidated and very much in need of extensive repairs and of paint. In general, the Hebrew does not give as much attention to repairs on buildings and fences, or to care of his tools, as does his neighbor. There is a thriftless aspect to several of these farmsteads that ill accords with good farming. The barnyards are cluttered and disorderly, the lawns and gardens are not mowed or neatly kept, and the outbuildings and gates need paint, hinges, and a general freshening. In this respect both the German-Swiss and the American are in advance of the Hebrew. There is good reason for this lack of attention to little details of neatness and order, but in the midst of general prosperity, and neighbors who take pride in the appearance of their farms, the Hebrew farm home is unfavorably conspicuous, in a number of instances. There are some exceptions, and on two of the farms, in particular, great improvements have been made, not only in the number of buildings, but in the whole appearance of the farmstead.

The fact that the Hebrews are traders and bargainers has militated against permanent progress in some cases. Within five years some of the farms have changed owners three times. The hard labor, close attention, and the necessity of remaining confined on a dairy farm. every day in the year, is a great hardship to the Hebrew whose life has been spent in commercial enterprises-unless the surplus returns from the farm flow in steadily. But nearly all these men are hopeful; those who have secured a little foothold are developing into efficient farmers and fairly successful dairymen. True, some have been investing all profits and some reserve capital in improvements and equipment, but some, too, have been receiving good returns. When one considers that they have learned all they know of American life and American agriculture in four years, their present stage of progress is gratifying.

MARKETS AND MARKETING FACILITIES.

Transportation service is very good, railway depots are convenient to every farmer in the community, and wagon roads are usually in excellent condition. There is some complaint of exorbitant freight charges and discriminations, but there is opportunity to dispose of any product at almost any time.

The milk and butter market has been referred to. Tobacco is sold, as is customary in the Connecticut Valley district, to buyers from the tobacco warehouses, who visit the farmers in the autumn, sometimes before the tobacco is cut, and purchase the crop at a certain price, delivered in winter or spring. There is much complaint by growers that these buyers are not competitors, that the price is fixed by the tobacco trust, and that the smaller growers are completely at the mercy of the tobacco dealer. The Hebrew grower suffers as much as but probably no more than other tobacco men from such exactions and discriminations. From the standpoint of the farmer neither the milk nor the tobacco markets are satisfactory, but in general the Hebrew is on the same plane as his neighbors.

Potatoes are sold at a flat rate to Rockville dealers, or to grocers, or are shipped to wholesale produce merchants in Hartford or Springfield. The potato market is excellent and the fluctuations are due largely to variations in the supply. In most years this crop is a paying one. Many farmers store their potatoes in cellars and sell in the spring.

There is a flourishing local grange in the neighborhood, but up to date the grange has paid little attention to cooperative selling. Some hostility to the grange has developed on the part of the Hebrew farmers, because, as one of the prominent Hebrews reported, the grange was not willing to admit all Hebrews to membership. There was no opposition to certain of the farmers, but the Hebrews wished to come in in a body, if at all. The objection made was that several of the foreign farmers could speak no English, or at least not enough to make themselves understood. At any rate, some of the Hebrews feel that they are not acceptable to the grangers, and as a whole they are inclined to criticise grange methods and granger hospitality.

In 1908, partly owing to the feeling in regard to the grange, a branch of the new farmers' organization, the American Federation of Jewish Farmers, was formed. There are now about 30 members. The society is far-reaching in scope and purpose, and includes cooperative selling of produce, cooperative buying of supplies, mutual aid for the sick and unfortunate, social and educational features and discussions of farm topics. Another feature that bids fair to become an established institution is a sort of peace or arbitration committee of five members, who are empowered to decide and settle disputes of various sorts between members. A saving in expenses of litigation and in consequent bad feeling is hoped for thh this instrumentality.

developing business cooperation not much has been done. members propose to buy fertilizer and to market tobacco, perveneratively, in an endeavor to deal as directly as possible ram'acturers. At this point it may be well to mention the sasunages of the organization. Both men and women belong

to the federation. Meetings are held once a week in winter, and semi-monthly in summer. They are held in the evenings at the houses of members, and the social opportunities afforded are much enjoyed. About twice a year a farmers' picnic is planned. If all works out well, the association bids fair to become a powerful factor in the social life of the rural community.

PROPERTY OWNED.

One of the Hebrew farms noted in the table at the end of the chapter is owned by two brothers. The others represent typical investments made by individual Hebrews. The values of land and improvements as given are perhaps too high in one or two instances, but in others the amount given represents a fair valuation, $4,500 to $14,000, with an average of $8,714 per farm. The values in tools, implements, live stock, and crops of hay and grain in the barns and granaries show the comparatively heavy capital equipment that must be carried, in instances more than $4,000. The amount of indebtedness is large, both in proportion to the value of the land and in the aggregate. Of the 11 Hebrew families investigated every one reported indebtedness varying from one-sixth to four-fifths of the value of the land. Four of the 11 have debts for supplies and equipment; the remaining indebtedness is part of the purchase price of the real estate. Despite the indebtedness, which is not of long standing, and which in most cases has been reduced somewhat since the purchase was made, the showings for the net values of property owned are gratifying, and signify that these men are not financially helpless, like some who have settled on cheap lands in certain other places. In most instances they compare very favorably with their Swiss neighbors, some of whom have been in the locality for twenty

years.

The neighbors almost invariably speak well of the industry and integrity of the Hebrew farmers. They are hard workers for the most part, ambitious and saving along certain lines. That is to say, money is carefully invested and little foolishly expended, but many wastes are apparent to the shrewd New England farmer. It is said that there is a tendency to replace a broken implement with a new one rather than to repair it; that cows are often fed more expensive rations than are justified, and that hay and grain are spilled and destroyed. However, it is agreed most are energetic, alert, active, and anxious to advance.

The women give most of their time to the affairs of household; few or none work in the fields, as do the women from Switzerland. Children, too, are sent to school during its sessions rather than kept out to work in the potato or corn fields.

THE PROBLEM OF FARM LABOR.

A large number of laborers are required by the dairymen and tobacco growers at some time during the season. The Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society has done a great deal toward getting newly arrived immigrants onto these farms. Many of the 48296°-VOL 22-11-5

laborers hired by the year or month are secured in this way; but many of the day laborers are Polish or, occasionally, Italians who reside in the vicinity. The inexperienced Hebrew immigrants receive $15 to $20, occasionally as much as $25 a month, and board, the highest rate being paid during the summer season. Day laborers are paid $1.50 to $2 per day, usually without board. The largest force is required in the season for cutting tobacco,, when some of the Hebrew farmers employ a dozen men. Farm laborers are very hard to secure, especially by the month or season, and the green hands remain but one summer often, then betake themselves to some other employment. Several men have grown sons or other relatives who aid them, and two farms are handled by partners, chiefly on account of the difficulty in securing the requisite number of hired men to carry on farming operations. Both the Poles and the Hebrews work well and willingly, but neither can handle horses to advantage, and have difficulty in operating almost any sort of farm machinery.

STANDARD OF LIVING.

As previously noted, the majority of the Hebrews are of the wellto-do class of Russian Jews, men who have had money and independent positions in the United States or abroad. For this reason, perhaps, there are fewer marks of the foreigner about them than of many of the Hebrews on the land. The food used is "kosher" in most instances, but is not less abundant than the American or essentially different in variety. Perhaps less attention is given to quality of food and manner of serving than in some households, but this is not characteristic.

The homes are not alike in appointment. Some have well-furnished houses, with pianos, carpets, pictures, books, and tasteful furniture and decorations, more modern in equipment than the ordinary Valley farm houses. Other homes are very dirty and ill kept; there is only the most necessary furniture. In almost all instances, however, there are hammocks, swings, lawn seats under the trees, and some rocking chairs or porch seats, all denoting a desire to be comfortable and to enjoy leisure.

The old men do not all speak English well, nor do the older women, but all make the attempt. They purpose to get command of English as quickly as possible. The young people, whether born in the United States or abroad, all speak English and are very desirous of adopting American standards of life and becoming Americans as quickly as possible.

SOCIAL AND EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS.

The most amicable relations seem to exist between the Hebrews and the rest of the community. The only distinctions emphasized are the foreign tongue and the failure to keep the first day of the week as the Sabbath. Some have been in the community long enough to meet on open, neighborly terms with Americans, others who are yet halting in speech keep quite to themselves in all matters except business. The grange has been spoken of as objecting to a Hebrew contingent. This was partly a personal matter between the leaders, but largely a matter of language. Some granges objected to the

admission of those obviously ignorant of the English tongue. Aside from this and a certain ingrained prejudice against the Hebrew and a widespread opinion that a Hebrew farmer is an anomaly, this settlement bears an excellent reputation in Ellington and vicinity.

Among themselves there is a great deal of neighborly visiting, occasionally a dance or a merrymaking, frequent Sunday gatherings, and a good deal of intercourse with Hartford, where are many relatives and friends. The proximity of Rockville and Hartford, with easy means of communication, does much to relieve the monotony of farm life and provide a means of recreation. Another opportunity for social relaxation is opened by the Hebrew farmers' organization before mentioned. Then, in the summer, there are numerous city visitors coming and going from July to October. None of the farmers keep any summer boarders for profit.

All seem eager to secure the best education possible, and one of the common complaints was the lack of adequate school facilities. There is a good public school near Ellington, and ample accommodations in other district schools-schools that have satisfied rural Connecticut for many years. But the Hebrew is not satisfied. The children. of the Hebrews have made good progress in the schools and no prejudice is manifested against them. There are practically no illiterates among those interviewed; all can read and write their native language. Some are acquainted with Hebrew, Yiddish, and Russian. Very few of the younger children-or those born in the United Statescan read or write anything but English; at home the language spoken is Yiddish or English.

MORAL CONDITIONS.

Morally there is much to be said in their praise and little in their disparagement. They are said to be shrewd bargainers, but there was no complaint of cheating or dishonesty. Dealers who buy their produce find it, in general, up to specifications. Those who profess to know declare that the Hebrews of Ellington stand well in business morality. That the economic independence of most of these colonists has had much to do with this comparatively high moral standard is a safe assumption.

No crimes have been committed and very few lawsuits have arisen in the settlement. Questions of boundary lines, trespass of stock, failure to keep up line fences, and nonfulfillment of contract obligations have been causes of litigation here and elsewhere more often among the Hebrews themselves than between Hebrews and Americans.

To sum up, most of them are honest, hard-working, law-abiding people, seeking prosperity, desiring American citizenship in the best sense, and aiming to educate their children in American ways. Opportunities to realize this condition are afforded at Ellington in greater degree than in many places. There is fertile soil, good marketing facilities, large possibilities for the educated, practical farmer. There is no real segregation by race. Nearly every Hebrew has a neighbor who is a non-Hebrew. Prejudice is dying out rapidly, and the "Hebrew farmer" is making himself respected as a farmer and as a citizen.