TABLE 1.-Hebrew farmers and farms occupied by Hebrews.

[Compiled from annual report of the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, 1909.,

The table must be taken with a little caution. While the percentage of distribution by States is sufficiently accurate for purposes of discussion, rather careful checking with assessors lists of taxpayers in certain townships in New England show that the estimates are, in instances, 33 per cent greater than number of taxpaying farmers listed on the tax roll. In New Jersey the tax lists and the estimates in the table agree very closely in most instances, for here in some counties a very careful count was made by the Hebrew authorities. Liability to error by exaggeration in three particulars may be noted: First, in the case of small and struggling settlements, wherever investigated, the number of actual farm operators was found to be much less than the estimates; second, in that of sparsely populated settlements covering a rather wide area, as in the eastern highland region of Connecticut or Sullivan and Ulster counties, New York, especially when land changes hands frequently; third, in the case of the "scattered" Hebrews: These are hearsay estimates and invariably "common report" exaggerated the number of foreigners in the groups that came under the investigators' notice. Errors are due to the almost irresistible tendency to give the maximum figures, to inexact methods of enumeration, to counting farmers twice in places where farms frequently change hands. Deducting the probable excess due to the causes noted, the number of Hebrew farmers may be hesitantly estimated at 2,300 to 2,600 and the number of farms operated at 2,000 to 2,300.

The accounts of settlements presented in the report of the society represent perhaps 75 per cent of all Hebrews on farms in the United States and present detailed studies of by far the most important groups. Most of these are actual colonies, organized and promoted by external stimulus, others are merely unorganized, undirected settlements which are held together only by the ties of race and religion.

ORIGIN OF HEBREW COLONIES.

Hebrew rural communities in the United States are confined very largely to Hebrews from Russia, Roumania, and Galicia; perhaps 85 per cent of the farmers interviewed are natives of these countries. The reason is evident. Most Hebrew farmers were established on the land directly or indirectly through the influence of an immigrant aid society of some sort. Nearly all of these organizations were founded for the purpose of assisting Russian Hebrews. The greatest of all such organizations was the Baron de Hirsch Fund, incorporated in 1891 to administer the trust funds of the philanthropist and banker, Baron de Hirsch, which he devoted to the amelioration of the economic condition of Russian Hebrews. Other Hebrews have been and are being aided, but the bulk of assistance has been given to those from Russia.

The very first rural settlement of Hebrews was a colony at Wawarsing, N. Y., founded in 1837 by a philanthropic Hebrew living in New York City. It lasted but a short time, for it was merely a planted colony, artificially sustained by outside support. There were no other attempts at Hebrew colonization, and very few Hebrews found their way to rural districts until 1882, following a considerable movement of Hebrews from Russia to the United States. From 1882 to 1886, a dozen or more rural colonies were planted in Oregon, the Dakotas, Kansas, Louisiana, New Jersey, Michigan, and elsewhere where land was cheap and procurable in large tracts. All were given material aid and encouragement, all met with unforeseen obstacles and discouragements, every one except the New Jersey colonies dragged out a short, unhappy existence and finally failed utterly.

SUCCESSFUL COLONIZATION.

These failures wrought discouragement and brought rural settlements into disfavor with the Hebrews. It was about 1882 that the first successful colony was established, in southern New Jersey. This colony, at first founded on a communistic basis, located on most unpromising, uncleared land in the pine barrens, was kept afloat from 1882 to 1890 only by the unfailing generosity and material assistance of fellow-countrymen, and finally, just as the project seemed about to be abandoned, by the timely relief extended through the Baron de Hirsch Fund.

This colony, or group of colonies, presents Hebrew agriculture in America at its best. Of the several colonies of Hebrews studied none show greater apparent material prosperity, a more general dependence on agriculture for a livelihood, a more intelligent, resourceful husbandry, or a more wholesome community life, educationally, socially, or politically, in a large sense. There is no doubt that a great deal of material encouragement has been given; that many of the social and educational enterprises were conceived, organized, and supported by leaders without the community, and that cooperative business associations and marketing facilities were promoted by leaders who do not live in the settlements-but once established the colonists have entered into all these enterprises with some degree of interest and are beginning to support them. To all appearances the

colonies near Vineland, N. J., are permanently established on the basis of a commercial agriculture adapted to the soil, climate, and the demands of the market.

Woodbine, N. J., viewed in the light of its origin, aims, history, and present condition, perhaps may be called an agricultural failure. The monograph on Woodbine, which appears later in this report, presents the case in detail. Emphatically, the industrial progress of Woodbine has far outstripped the agricultural progress of the rural settlement. Whether agriculture will ever gain its lost prestige is problematic, to say the least.

The 1,000 or more Hebrew farmers in New England and New York, with a few exceptions noted elsewhere in this report, are either farm owners who depend to a greater or less extent on some outside enterprise, such as peddling, cattle trading, junk buying, speculating in real estate, keeping summer boarders, etc., for a material part of their incomes.

The demand for summer boarding accommodations is increasing more rapidly than the number of farms owned by Hebrews. The reports show that this method of disposing of farm produce is satisfactory as far as it goes, and "summer boarder agriculture" would be a legitimate designation were it not that many, perhaps most, Hebrews do not anticipate the demands created by the boarders and find it necessary to ship in or buy from native farmers the vegetables, poultry, and dairy products which for the most part might be produced on their own farms. Neither have many farmers made any attempt to make their farms attractive or to offer any special inducements in the way of superior quarters, natural attractions, or amusements. In certain favored places the Bohemians have much more intelligently adapted their system of farming to summer boarders. Nevertheless, half of the Hebrew farm families in the Eastern States have at some time or other made a practice of taking at least a few boarders or lodgers for pay for part of the summer. Whether boarders and lodgers are economically profitable or not, it is certain that their presence does much to enliven the monotonous life of the open country for two months in the year.

A brief account is given of a Wisconsin colony that has proved a failure up to the present (1909). The almost inevitable failure of groups of nonagricultural Jews, artificially planted, on cheap uninproved land has been recognized by the Jewish Agricultural and Industrial Aid Society, which has recently been making provision for giving instruction in farming on their Long Island experimental farm to prospective rural colonists, who after a year of such instruction are likely to give up farming entirely, or continue in it with some knowledge of agriculture. Furthermore, this society is purchasing for settlement improved farms which will yield a living return during the first year of occupancy. The settlement referred to might have succeeded had the colonists been given some previous instruction in agriculture or had they been established on productive soil.

A study of the several settlements has emphasized these facts at least; that the Hebrew is not adapted by training or tradition to make a pioneer farmer; that to win success he should start with some capital on improved land; that settlement in groups is for various

reasons almost essential; that those who are likely to succeed are either those who have been farmers abroad or who have had some successful experience in agriculture in the United States previous to permanent settlement.

THE AGRICULTURE OF THE HEBREW.

The rural Hebrews as a whole have given little to American agriculture either in the way of crops, culture, management, or marketing; with a few notable exceptions, the agriculture is but mediocre or unsatisfactory. Crops, tillage, quality and quantity of produce show up rather more poorly than in most of the colonies of several different races investigated. In a few instances progress is shown and a growing interest in scientific agriculture and advanced methods is manifested, giving evidence of the agricultural capacity of the Hebrew when once his intelligent interest is aroused. Otherwise, except for the acreage of wild land subdued and improved in New Jersey, Jewish communities have not added greatly to the rural wealth of their respective adopted States.

On the other hand, country life and ownership has in various ways been of great benefit to the Jew as an individual.

It is characteristic of the Hebrew farms visited that the farmstead receives less attention than the farm. It is frequently asserted that it is not difficult to pick out a Hebrew farm by the unkempt, more or less dilapidated, appearance of the house, yards, and farm buildings. With some reservations this is truly said. Even where there is superior tillage the permanent improvements are likely to be in poor condition. The best buildings reported are in Sullivan and Ulster counties, where some of the farmers have built larger and better houses for the accommodation of boarders, and in a few places in Connecticut, where they have purchased fine old farmhouses with the farms belonging to them.

Hebrew farm incomes are seldom large, but all things considered, do not suffer by comparison with those of other recent immigrant farmers in the neighborhood. The largest gross incomes noted were on the tobacco farms of the Ellington, Conn., settlement, established but a few years; the largest net incomes are probably those of the Vineland farmers. It is very difficult to arrive at net incomes and accurate estimates of property owned, however. An estimate of income based on the general appearance of thrift and the evidences of prosperity displayed on the farm and its surroundings is likely to be more accurate than one based on reported sales of produce. Judged by this standard, the average farmer in the New Jersey colonies is doing better than those in almost any other community.

STANDARD OF LIVING IN RURAL COMMUNITIES.

It is impossible to arrive at anything definite with regard to cost of living among Hebrew farmers. Few of them keep any accounts of receipts and expenditures and there are no carefully kept family budgets; part of the household's living comes from the soil, part is furnished by the market; absolute cost or close approximations of household budgets are not obtainable.

At all events, the Hebrew farm family lives better both in respect of food and clothing than the Pole or the Italian who has been on the land for the same length of time. Those who have been accustomed to the high standard of living abroad, and this is the case of a number of recent Hebrew recruits to agriculture, are living very well indeed-as well as the majority of their American neighbors and among the earlier settlers who entered agriculture without means of their own observers notice evidences of a rising standard of comfort.

The most noticeable fact, as contrasted with other foreigners, is the desire for the appurtenances of comfort and leisure. Rocking chairs, hammocks, books, and buggies are bought early in the career of the farmer, usually long before his farm is paid for. The immigrant ordinarily purchases necessities first, pays for his land and equipment next, and later makes his home comfortable. Most of the Hebrews buy comforts early and remain in debt longer, in order to enjoy them. The Hebrew agriculturist is a good consumer.

THE HEBREW FARMER CITIZEN.

In general, the Russian Hebrew has proved more apt in civic relations and in commerce than in agriculture. He is likely to become a citizen sooner than most east European immigrants and to take a more intelligent interest in politics; few are illiterate, and practically all of the American born or the minors who have been in the United States ten years can speak, read, and write English The ownership of land and the proprietorship of a farm enterprise has developed independence, self-reliance, and self-respect. The chief objection of the Hebrew to rural life lies in the meager returns for labor expended, the isolation, and the absence of social conveniences.

The Hebrews have demanded better schools nearly everywhere they have settled. Where they are segregated with sufficient compactness, their leaders have originated social, educational, and recreative enterprises for the benefit of the community. The few who are really interested in farming realize the need for knowledge and training along agricultural lines; the others want their children to have at least a good commercial education and some are striving to send their children to college. Near Hartford there are a number of exceptionally intelligent Hebrews who have taken up farms and are engaged in dairying and market gardening. The two desires they voice most persistently are better educational facilities and more opportunities for fellowship of kind. They are not content with the financial returns from the farms they occupy, but they are less content with their educational advantages. Nearly everywhere, too, they voice an intelligent protest against an unregulated commission marketing system, against exorbitant express charges and unreasonably high railroad rates for short distances. Whatever may be said of his agriculture, the Hebrew farmer is a thinking, protesting citizen.

Americanization in the sense of desire for representative government, democratic institutions, an educated electorate, equality of opportunity, and the free agency of the individual is developed rap