their former occupations or moved into the village. Their places were quickly filled, however, by newcomers, who tried their hands at farming, at least for a short time. Immigration still continues, and the colony grows both from within and by additions from Europe and by migration from the large cities. The migratory percentage of the population is not inconsiderable, but there is an increasing body of permanent residents, especially in the borough.

SOIL AND CLIMATE.

The

The physiography of the pine barrens is rather fully described in the other New Jersey sections of this report and will not be repeated here. The climate, somewhat modified by the ocean, is generally mild in winter and not extremely hot in summer. growing season is comparatively long and the precipitation ample for farm crops. The typical soils are sands or sandy loams, most of them rather coarse and very porous. They contain very little humus and retain neither moisture nor fertilizer satisfactorily. The texture is such that they are easily worked, but in many places they seem to contain few more elements of fertility than a bed of sand.

The natural unproductiveness of the soil, unless skillfully fertilized, was a source of great discouragement to the early settlers. General grain crops are little adapted to the region and grass is ordinarily a failure. One account of the colony says that the first settlers engaged enthusiastically in grape culture, but the soil was so ill adapted to vines that the attempt proved a failure. In this connection, however, it is of interest to recall the success of the Hammonton South Italians in viticulture on soil having essentially the same characteristics. Since then the agricultural school has taught the farmers a great deal about New Jersey soil and New Jersey crops.

a

Owing partly to the contour, partly to the porous nature of the soil, the natural drainage is very nearly adequate and little or no artificial drainage has been necessary. The installation of a system of irrigation to supply moisture in the mid-summer months has been discussed and may become a reality in the near future. Despite the high normal depth of rainfall the sandy soil dries very quickly, and unless showers are frequent and copious vegetation suffers greatly during July and August.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS.

As previously stated the first farms were each 15 acres in extent. Some farmers have added to the original allotments. A few own as many as 50 acres, but the greater part of the holdings are still 15 acres in extent. In 1901 49 of the farms contained 15 acres each, 2 contained only 10 acres each and one had 30 acres. About 66 per cent of the land in farms was cultivated.

There are, in 1909, some 55 men engaged wholly or partly in agriculture. Hence the average of cultivated land is just about 11 acres

a David Blaustein, Ph. D., superintendent of the Jewish Educational Alliance, The Circle, September, 1907, pp. 138-140.

per man. It is evident that land has not been cleared very rapidly and that the small area in cultivation per family precludes the possi bility of extensive agriculture or even of dairying on a commercial scale. No cereal crops are raised for market, and an average of but one or two cows are kept per farm. The Hirsch Agricultural School has a fine herd of Jersey cows, which in the absence of natural pastures. must be fed largely on silage, but dairying is not a practicable possibility in the colony.

Truck farming and small-fruit growing are the chief farming industries. Strawberries, blackberries, grapes, and some peaches are the principal fruits. Some of the grapes are made into wine; others are shipped to the grape-juice factory at Vineland. Peaches are but partially successful. Sweet and white potatoes, tomatoes, corn, lima beans, onions, and several other staple vegetables are produced. The first three are perhaps the most important money crops. All these crops can be made to produce excellently, both in quantity and quality under careful husbandry. Some of the Hebrews are very efficient husbandmen and have specialized in fruit or some variety of truck crop. Others are but mediocre and are inclined to depend chiefly on their industrial earnings for their incomes. It is very difficult to estimate the average farm incomes of the community. As a whole they are comparatively low, probably lower on the average than those of Hebrew farmers at Rosenhayn.

The farms in general seem well tilled and in good order. A number of the farmers have had some instruction in the agricultural school and display the results of it in their farming. The farms are not fenced, fences being unnecessary; even garden fences are wanting in many cases. As is noticeable in other Hebrew communities, the houses and buildings, by their evidences of neglect and lack of repairs and paint detract much from the prosperous aspect of the farming community. The farmsteads are often unkempt and uncared for. Litter of various sorts is scattered about, machinery is not always housed, not much attention has been paid to lawns or yards, and the old houses are sadly in need of fresh paint.

MARKET FACILITIES.

Woodbine farmers are well supplied with markets. The local demand would seem to be sufficient to consume larger quantities of several vegetable, dairy, and poultry products than are now produced. This home market needs to be further developed. The seashore resorts require large quantities of all kinds of farm products throughout the year. Most vegetables are shipped to points on the coast, but numerous farmers haul great loads of vegetables to Cape May, Ocean View, and other seacoast points, taking a whole day for the trip. The market is usually good, especially if the farmer has a number of customers whom he regularly supplies. Some produce, especially berries and potatoes, is shipped to commission men in New York and Philadelphia. Transportation facilities are adequate, but transportation charges are high unless for carload

a In this connection it will be of interest to compare the report on St. Helena Italians (Vol. I. chap. 7) established since December, 1905, under conditions very similar to those of the Woodbine Hebrews.

lots, and cooperative shipping and marketing has not been developed.

The grapejuice company at Vineland provides a market for all surplus grapes, and the entire tomato crop goes by contract to the two canning factories in Dennisville. It is not easy to calculate the profits of any of these crops, but there is seldom difficulty in disposing of the entire Woodbine output. By shipping when prices are high and selling direct to the consumer when prices are low, the Woodbine grower has an advantage over those truckers who are not in touch with the local trade and must ship all produce whether the market is up or down. The small grower under the régime of independent shipments must of necessity sell in the home market.'

The produce raised on the school farm has taken several prizes at the country fairs in competition with native farm products. It is said. that the quality of the tomatoes and grapes raised by the Hebrews is fully equal to the average produced by the American farmers who contribute to the supply. Yields are not greater in all cases, but some of the Hebrew husbandmen who have had training at the agricultural school are proficient farmers and intelligent men. Unfortunately, the number of school-trained farmers in the community is limited. The haphazard farmer who engages in a highly specialized form of agriculture is almost certain to fail, and no other system of agriculture seems possible near Woodbine.

Compared with native farmers in the same financial group, the Hebrew appears well. It must be remembered, however, that a native farmer with the same debts, acres, and income as the Hebrew farmer in Woodbine is not considered very prosperous or progressive. The cultivated fields and the fruit areas present a much better appearance than the farmhouses, many much better than those of Jersey farmers. But when all is said, it appears that the average net returns of all farms in the community are not high. This is another reason why the marginal farmer is giving up and entering industrial pursuits where the returns are at least fairly certain and regular. On the other hand, competent observers say that the Hebrews have made great progress in the art of farming, if not in number of farmers within fifteen years. Great credit must be given the colonists and their leaders.

The native farmers own slightly larger orchards of peaches and apples than the colonists and fewer grapevines. Whether this is due to the fact that the Jerseymen are more skillful pomologists or that the Hebrews are not inclined to orchard husbandry does not appear. Both are engaged in raising berry and truck crops. The native farmers keep more live stock, but owing to lack of natural pasturage this industry is not significant in south Jersey.

PROPERTY AND EMPLOYMENT.

The value of property owned by farmers has not appreciated. rapidly in recent years. The figures quoted for 1899 in a state report give $75,000 worth of farm property; for 1901 the corresponding figures are $50,000 worth of farm lands and improvements, an average of $100 per acre for cultivated land. The aggregate has probably 48296°- -VOL 22-11-10

increased but little since then. A comparatively large percentage of the farms carry encumbrances, in instances equal to more than one-half the value of the land. The Land and Improvement Company holds practically all of the mortgages, and reports greater activity in collecting payments of principal and interest for the past few years, denoting, it is said, a greater degree of prosperity and a somewhat more businesslike attitude toward these debts. Many Hebrews formerly regarded the advances from the Baron de Hirsch Fund as gifts rather than loans and made their payments with reluctance. In fact, it is said, some refused to acknowledge any indebtedness to the Fund.

The farm property consists largely of land and the improvements on it. Not many farmers are reported as having bank accounts and not many have invested in commercial securities, additional land, or city property. The Woodbine Building and Loan Association has appealed to the thrifty instincts of the Hebrew, especially in the borough, and has aided many to acquire their own houses. The value of farm property can not be given with accuracy, but the total assessed valuation of taxable property in the town was $404,783 in 1908. The tax rate was $2.28.

The opportunities for industrial employment in the vicinity have been cited. Clothing and hats, machinery and hardware, knit goods, and canned vegetables give a variety of occupations. Most of the companies are granted subventions, consisting of power. light, and heat, by the Jewish Aid Society, but the amount of the subsidies is being gradually diminished. On account of the concessions and the usually abundant supply of labor factory conditions are very favorable, and although wages are somewhat less than in New York the surroundings are very pleasant and cost of living is rather low.

Men are employed in all the factories, by the Borough of Woodbine and by the Land Company, both as skilled and unskilled laborers. About 350 to 375 males 16 years of age and over find employment for approximately nine months of the year. The cannery at Dennisville runs fewer months, and the machine shops are usually in operation the year around. The average rate of wages is $1.60 per day, varying from $1 to $2 a day for a 58-hour week. (One machine company has a 56-hour week.)

Women are employed only in the factories; the total number of female laborers 16 years of age and over is approximately 150 to 200. They find employment for about nine months at wages averaging about 35 cents lower than men, approximately $1.25 per day. Wages run from about 75 cents to $1.40. These wages are approximations only, since no pay rolls were examined. A number of the young men and women from the farms work in the factories the greater part of the year. Most of them prefer factory work to labor on the farms, chiefly because of the regular and shorter hours and the companionship. Actual wages of farm laborers are almost or equally as high as factory wages. The girls, of course, can find no gainfu employment on farms, and fully 75 per cent of the working women are between 16 and 21 years of No children under 16 years of age are employed in any of the Woodbine industries.

age.

Earnings are not easy to estimate, but the results of an inquiry, frequently refed to, made by Hebrew authorities in 1901, indicate

that the average income per household in the entire colony is some $675 annually. Since all households. are included this is a good showing. In 1899 a similar inquiry showed the average annual earnings of each family to be a little more than $500.a

STANDARD OF LIVING.

Living conditions among the Woodbine Hebrews do not differ greatly from those described in the other New Jersey colonies, nor are they very different from those of the native farmer. It is the general opinion that the rural homes have fewer comforts, and that, if anything, the conditions of life are less favorable; less attention to the cleanliness of the home, to matters of dress, to preparation and quality of food, as compared with native farmers, is the impression gained by visits to rural homes. The lack of care of the house has been observed elsewhere. In dress there is nothing foreign, and the men are even better provided than native farmers. Of food, there is a wide variety of both meat and vegetables, but it is less well cooked and served than in the American rural homes. A storekeeper in Woodbine states that the consumption of meat per family on the farms is much less than in the borough, the deficiency in meat being made up by a greater consumption of vegetables. Poultry furnishes the only meat the farmer produces on his farm. The chief beverage is tea, which is extensively used.

The cost of board is rather difficult to ascertain in the farming section, for very few farmers take boarders or lodgers, and inquiry must be confined to the members of the family who live at home, usually in the borough, and work in the factories. The rate depends somewhat on the earnings and is based partly on the cost of the food; prevailing rates vary from $10 to $20 for board and lodging. Very few farmers receive any income from boarding either children or outsiders. Where a boarder is kept he pays $10 to $12 a month for board and room. Farm hands are not boarded except in a few extraordinary instances.

HOUSING.

The farmhouses as a rule are four or five room frame buildings, plastered inside. Roofs are shingled, and some houses have small side porches. The houses and outhouses have been in many cases added to and bettered, generally by the more prosperous class.

Taken as a whole the houses are in fairly good condition; the majority of them are practically new, ranging from 7 or 8 to 18 years old. Some, principally among the farmers, are in bad repair. Plaster is falling, the paint is practically all worn off, and the outhouses are dilapidated. The floors and walls are very greasy and unclean. Refuse is strewn about in close proximity to the houses, making very insanitary conditions. This description applies only to the less prosperous people; the more prosperous and progressive apparently take some pride in keeping such things in order and repair. Their furniture is modern and in good condition. The floors are covered with carpets and mattings, and the walls are in many cases papered.

See Twenty-third Annual Report of Bureau of Statistics and Labor, New Jersey, 1900, p. 302.