these farms would support the families, outside employment had to be found in order to obtain cash to help meet payments.

The growth of the settlement has been slow and there is little indication that it will increase greatly in size. The present settlers are doing well and increasing the size of their farms by additional purchases from time to time, but no effort is being made to induce more Italian families to come to the locality. No immigrants who own farms have ever deserted the settlement and all are permanent residents. At the present time (1909) it is estimated that the 250 South Italians of Port Byron engaged in farming are divided by age, as follows:

About 30 males are engaged in cultivating their own or rented land, and the balance work for wages as farm hands or as laborers on the railroads. The usual wage is from $1.25 to $1.50 per day. It is estimated that there are 20 females and 10 males over 16 years of age who work occasionally for wages, and about 15 males between 16 and 20 who work regularly for wages. The usual earnings are from $1 to $1.50 per day. No children work for wages. All women, and the children that are old enough, assist in the farm work, the children as weeders and the women doing about the same work as the men.

ASSOCIATION WITH NATIVES.

The Italian settlers at Port Byron have not adopted American customs as rapidly as those in other agricultural localities investigated. This is accounted for by the fact that the immigrants under discussion are more closely segregated than is generally the case in a settlement engaged in farming. The farms owned by Italians are all in the same locality along the Erie Canal practically, hence the settlers adjoining are thrown together for the most part and associate little with Americans. Nearly all of the families are interrelated and this makes them more clannish. The older settlers do not associate with Americans at all, and though most of them have been in the locality for many years they have adopted few American customs and live about as they did in their native country. Those of the second generation, however, have adopted native customs to a large extent and are influencing the older members of the settlement toward Americanization.

In the early days of the settlement there was considerable prejudice against Italians on the part of Americans, but this has worn off and at the present time there is little ill feeling against the race. The early prejudice was caused by the fact that natives did not want foreigners in the locality on account of the lawlessness manifested by the Italians engaged in railroad work in the vicinity.

SOIL, CLIMATE, AND TOPOGRAPHY.

The soils on farms occupied by Italians are of three types-stony or sandy loam, muck, and meadow; on some of the farms all three types are found. The stony or sandy loam has a depth of from 9 to 12 inches, is of a brown or gravish-brown color, and contains about 35 per cent of various grades of sand and some small gravel. The surface is covered with small rounded stones and chips and fragments of shale and limestone The subsoil is a compact loam, slightly sandy and usually light brown in color. Upon this type of soil nearly all of the ordinary farm crops give fair results. Corn, potatoes, oats, barley, and buckwheat are grown, and grass crops show fair results.

Muck is composed of a large amount of organic matter mixed with a small amount of fine silt and sand. It was formed by the decay under moist conditions of large quantities of vegetable matter accumulating in swamps and a small amount of silt and sand deposited in times of high water. When well drained muck is very desirable for the production of potatoes, onions, celery, cabbage, and other vegetables.

There is no definite character to the soil or subsoil designated "meadow," it being as a rule an indiscriminate mixture of blue and yellow clay and gray sand, which is sometimes covered with a few inches of muck. Most of this type is covered with tamarack and other water-loving trees, or with coarse, rank grasses. In localities where there is a covering of muck, the higher areas, when freely drained, are often well adapted to celery, onions, and all vegetable crops.

The climate is characterized by long, cold winters and correspondingly short summers. The rainfall is well distributed throughout the growing season, and, while the summer temperature seldom reaches 90° F., all of the ordinary farm crops produced north of Maryland can be profitably grown in this climate.

The following table shows the average temperature and the amount and distribution of precipitation throughout the year. The table shows conditions at Auburn, N. Y., which is only a few miles from Port Byron.

Normal monthly and annual temperature and precipitation.

[United States Department of Agriculture, Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1904, pp. 98 and 114.]

The general contour of the country is broken, a range of hills running along the Erie Canal. Between the canal and these hills is a low, flat area which was formerly a marsh. A great deal of this land has been reclaimed by draining, and here most of the Italians have their farms. A few have property near the bordering hills and in such cases the farm consists of both the meadow and the upland soil types.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS.

Farms owned by immigrants range in size from 2 to 125 acres, the average size being 39 acres. The crops raised include celery, corn, oats, onions, willow, cabbage, and potatoes. The principal money crops, however, are celery and onions, the other crops mentioned being produced in smaller quantities.

In cultivating onions, celery, and willow most of the work is done by hand, little machinery being employed; only hand cultivators, seeders, and light garden plows are absolutely necessary. For celery and onions it is important to have the land in good condition before the crop is planted, and from then to the time it is harvested constant care must be exercised in keeping it thoroughly cultivated and free from weeds. The South Italian enlists all of his family in this work and thus has an economic advantage over the American who has to hire help. From 350 to 500 bushels of onions are usually produced to the acre, and the price per bushel varies from 50 to 75 cents, according to the quality and the onion supply. From 2,500 to 3,500 heads of celery are raised to the acre, the price received being from $18 to $20 per thousand.

Willow is raised for the manufacture of baskets and wicker goods. For raising willows the land does not require the thorough draining necessary to other crops. It is first plowed and harrowed, and then the willow slips are set out in rows about 3 feet apart. One planting suffices for four to five years, when the land has to be cleared and replanted. Much care has to be exercised in cultivating the willows and in keeping them free from weeds. It is necessary that the sprouts be without branches, and insect powder has to be put on the switch frequently to keep insects from destroying it. These insects feed on the leaves at the end of the switch, and where a leaf is eaten a branch forms and renders that particular switch valueless. The willows are cut by hand late in the fall after the leaves have fallen, assorted into piles of equal length, bound into bundles and shipped to the factory. Italians introduced this crop to the locality and have been very successful with it.

American farmers keep much more live stock and poultry than Italians do. The farms of immigrants are usually small and there is no room for pasture; no hay or grain is raised for feed; in the muck. land there are no fences to keep poultry or cattle out of the fields, and few horses are required in the system of farming practiced by the settlers.

In thorough preparation of the land the Italian is perhaps more careful than the American, as he usually has a smaller farm and more time to devote to the crop. In cultivating onions and celery the Italians excel. From the time the crops are put in the ground until they are harvested the settlers are constantly at work cultivating and

weeding. In this work all the family join, even the smallest children doing their share. In fertilizing land the methods of immigrants and Americans are identical.

MARKETS AND MARKETING FACILITIES.

Italian settlers of Port Byron have good markets for all their produce. The excellent transportation furnished by the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, the West Shore Railroad, and the Erie Canal have been mentioned. Crops are marketed in New York City, Buffalo, Auburn, Weedsport, and other cities of the State. Some of those selling celery in Weedsport, Auburn, or neighboring towns peddle it from house to house, some sell to local buyers, but when crops are disposed of in bulk they are consigned to commission merchants in some of the larger cities. There is no cooperative marketing among the farmers of the community, and each producer sells according to his own judgment. All of the willow grown in the locality by Italians is sold in Liverpool, N. Y.

PROPERTY OWNED.

The property owned by Italian settlers consists of farms and equipment, dwellings, and places of business. Debts consist of balances due on land, and accounts for supplies, which are payable when the crops are sold. The indebtedness of the settlement is very light, considering the amount of property owned. It is estimated that the total amount of money owed by immigrants does not exceed $2,500, and that their total property is worth close to $40,000. Several immigrants are in business; a fruit store, coal yard, general store, two saloons, and a commission house are owned by Italians.

The settlers are extremely thrifty. They came to the locality with practically nothing and by saving have been able to buy homes and land, none have suffered foreclosure because of failure to meet mortgages at maturity, and nearly all have snug sums in cash in addition to the property owned. During the past year (1909) about $2,500 was sent to Italy; part of this amount went through private channels and part through the local post-office. This money was forwarded in small amounts for the support of relatives.

STANDARD OF LIVING.

The houses of the immigrants are well-constructed frame buildings, usually of two stories with six to eight rooms; in some instances brickbeehive" ovens are built in the yards. There are few barns or outbuildings because little poultry or live stock is kept, and almost the only buildings necessary are sheds for preparing and washing celery or storing and drying onions.

The interior of the home is not clean, for apparently the Italian women take little pride in keeping the rooms neat. Little attempt is made at adornment and few interiors are furnished with pictures, carpets, or window curtains.

The food consumed by Italians is of much poorer quality than that of the American laborer. During the summer the garden provides almost the entire living of the family, for little meat is eaten. One

day in each week is devoted to baking, and bread made at that time must last until the next baking day. Breakfast and lunch are the unimportant meals of the day among Italian farmers, and consist principally of bread, onions, sausage, or vegetables left over from the previous evening meal. At the evening meal more food is served, some dishes being served hot, but even for this meal the cooking is of a very inferior order. The women work in the fields and give little time to cooking or housekeeping.

Immigrants wear a much cheaper and coarser grade of clothing than American laborers. This is particularly noticeable among the older men and women of the settlement. They have been slow in adopting American customs as to dress and many of them are very slovenly and dirty. The second generation, however, dress much more elaborately and spend more for clothing than the older immigrants. The women and children help on the farm, the women laboring beside the men. The children pull weeds and are of great assistance in keeping the crops clean. A few women work for wages on farms in the locality, but no children are employed except on their fathers'

farms.

EMPLOYMENT, SOCIAL LIFE, EDUCATIONAL CONDITIONS.

There is little opportunity outside of farm work for immigrants to secure employment in the locality. The railroads hire but a limited. number of men on the section gangs and there are no factories in the vicinity.

The social life of the settlement consists in visiting on Sunday afternoons among the different families. The men have a common meeting place at the Italian saloons, but there are no societies promoting or encouraging social intercourse and settlers have few recreations or amusements.

The compulsory school law of New York State has done much toward the Americanization of the second generation. All children have attended or are attending school, and the effect is readily seen in their progressiveness and the readiness with which they are adopting American customs and standards of living. The schools of Port Byron and vicinity are excellent and the teachers state that the Italian child is regular in attendance, is usually a good student, and makes as satisfactory progress as American children. They have adopted American games, children of both races play together, and there is little friction between the races.

POLITICAL AND MORAL CONDITIONS.

Twenty immigrants are fully naturalized citizens and 5 have first papers. It is said they become naturalized as soon as possible after becoming property owners. Italians of the second generation show considerable civic interest and one of them has held the office of chief of police of Port Byron for several years. The older settlers show little interest in political and local affairs and their influence has done much to keep the settlement back and cause local prejudice.

The general moral character of the settlement is good. The police report immigrants to be orderly, and no crimes have been committed for many years. In regard to sobriety and honesty, the general