land was capable of being transformed into its present condition of fertility and productivity. The early settlers in clearing and draining their farms had only hardships and toil for their portion during the first few years of farm life, but they have been rewarded for their industry, and now most of them are practically free from debt and own farms which are worth considerably more than they paid for them, and which are showing a good profit each year.

Some of the immigrants brought their wives and families with them upon first coming to the locality, but this was an exception to the general rule, and the wife and children were generally sent for some time after the head of the family arrived in the settlement.

It was found that most of the settlers could speak English. Those unable to do so were the older immigrants, men and women who were advanced in years when they arrived in the United States. It was particularly noticeable that inability to speak English was more pronounced among the women than men. It was also found that 50 . per cent of the settlers who were 14 years of age or over at the time of arrival in this country could read and write. Of the second generation all members over 10 years of age could speak English and none were unable to read and write. From 20 individuals it was learned that 6 had been in the United States between five and nine years, 2 between ten and fourteen years, 6 between fifteen and nineteen years, 5 had a residence of over twenty years, and only 1 had been in this country under five years.

Families of the settlement are generally large and rarely number less than 8 or 10 persons. Several households were observed where there were between 10 and 14 children in the family. One Italian perhaps expressed the sentiment of the whole settlement when he said: "The more children you have, the more acres you can cultivate." The family tie is very binding and few children seek work in other localities, most of them remaining at home and working on their father's farm until they are married. They turn over all their earnings to their parents, and instances were noted where men between 21 and 25 years old were contributing everything they earned to the family fund. There seems to be a remarkable degree of affection between parents and children, and the extent to which immigrants have sent to Europe for their relatives also shows the closeness of the family bond. It seems to be the custom of the settlers to marry early in life and most of the women marry between the ages of 16 and 20 and the men between 20 and 25.

Fourteen typical South Italian families were studied by the Commission's agents in this settlement. The heads of all these families were born in Italy. Seven, or one-half, of the total number reporting Naples as their birthplace. Only one, however, came direct to the colony from Italy, the remainder having spent more or less time following their immigration in other parts of New York State. The 14 men reported occupations before leaving Italy as follows: General laborers 5, farm laborers 4, farmer, machinist, shoemaker, cigar maker, cooper, 1 each. Occupations in the United States prior to coming to the settlement were reported as follows: Laborers 10, policeman and hotel keeper, farmer and laborer, cigar maker, no occupation, 1 each.

AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS.

All of the muck lands which are now under cultivation were once swamps, and were useless from an agricultural standpoint. Water to the depth of 4 or 5 feet stood in many places and in all parts of the swamp the ground was so miry that it could only be crossed when frozen. The entire swamp area was covered with a dense growth of brush and trees, which made it almost impassable.

In 1850 the Douglas ditch was cut through the highlands between Oneida Lake and the swamp. This proved inefficient, and in 1867 it was extended to a line between Sullivan and Lenox townships. From time to time it was extended further, and in 1875 the State appropriated $35,000 for its extension and improvement. There was still a lack of drainage and considerable trouble from the volume of water discharged by the canal, and it required another appropriation of $30,000 from the State to complete it. Many lateral ditches and local extensions have been made by private parties from time to time. The immediate enhancement of the value of the swamp land, or muck, upon the completion of the drainage system was about $10 an acre, or more than the entire cost of construction of the drainage ditches, and there has been a subsequent increase in the price of the reclaimed land of from 300 to 600 per cent."

The farms of immigrants all lie in the muck land and have been reclaimed by draining. The usual method employed is to dig ditches from 2 to 6 feet deep along the outer boundaries of the property; smaller ditches surround the fields, and where exceedingly swampy conditions prevail, a system of tiling is employed to drain from the center of the field to the lateral ditches. The main ditches surrounding the farm empty into those constructed by the county or State.

The farms owned by Italians are small, usually varying in size from 5 o 10 acres. One or two Italian farmers have from 10 to 20 acres under cultivation, but this is exceptional, and the general average acreage is that first given. The small acreage of the farms owned is due to the fact that most of the planting and cultivating is done by hand and a man and his family are unable to handle successfully more than 10 acres.

The

Of the 14 farms investigated by the Commission three were untillable when purchased or rented by the Italians. This means that they were in a swampy condition, covered with brush and trees, and, at certain seasons of the year, with from 1 to 3 feet of water. work of clearing and draining had to be accomplished before any revenue could be derived from the land. Of these farms two were between 5 and 10 acres, and the other between 10 and 20 acres, in extent. Of the eleven farms which were tillable when first rented or purchased by the Italians, two had less than 5 acres, and nine between 5 and 10 acres.

The Commission made inquiry concerning the price paid for 14 farms which had been purchased by Italians. Ten of these farms, covering about 8 acres each, were of nontillable muck land, and the average price paid was $78 per acre. The remaining four farms, averaging 7 acres each, were three-fourths or more tillable, and the

@ Information secured from Field Operations, Bureau of Soils, 1906. Eighth report, p. 161.

average price was $98 per acre. The average cash payment made at the time of purchase was more than two-thirds of the cost. At the time the Commission's inquiry was made all of these farms were three-fourths or more tillable, showing that every Italian farmer has drained, cleared, and cultivated his land, thus greatly enhancing it in value.

CROPS RAISED AND CULTURE.

The South Italians in Canastota devote themselves almost exclusively to the production of two crops-onions and celery. Onions will yield from 400 to 800 bushels to the acre, with an average of from 500 to 600 bushels. Celery gives an average yield per acre of 1,000 dozen "ones" or single plants of first quality. Beets, carrots, and potatoes are also produced, but in small quantities, and an insignificant acreage is devoted to these crops.

After the first three or four years of cultivation it becomes necessary to use fertilizers; various kinds are used, but that giving universal satisfaction and used to the greatest extent has the following analysis: Ammonia, 4 per cent; phosphoric acid, 6 per cent; potash, 10 per cent. The usual amount of seed used per acre for onions is 6 pounds, with 600 pounds of the above-mentioned fertilizer. Celery requires from 18,000 to 20,000 plants and 300 pounds of fertilizer per acre. The cost of seed and fertilizer varies from year to year. For the present crop (1909) $1.25 per pound was paid for onion seed, celery plants were 50 cents per 1,000, and between $30 and $35 per ton was paid for fertilizer.

The prices received by Italians for their crops during the past year (1908) varied according to the quality of the crop, the time sold, etc. Some received as much as 80 cents per bushel for onions, but as near as the approximate prices can be calculated they received for

Onions.....

Carrots.
Potatoes

Celery....

.40 to 45 cents per bushel. .25 to 31 cents per bushel. .50 to 85 cents per bushel. 1 to 1 cents per head.

All members of the Italian family, except very young children, take part in the farm work. The men and women do the heavier work and the children the weeding and lighter tasks. The onion and celery crops require more work and attention than any other crops produced, and it is no uncommon sight to see the whole Italian family in the field, the men and women hoeing and cultivating and the children, even down to 6 or 7 years of age, busy weeding by hand. Preparation for the crop begins early in the spring. The land is broken and thoroughly prepared; even clods as small as a walnut being broken. From the time the crops are planted until they are harvested in the fall all are busy; the smallest weeds are carefully pulled and the Italian farm is a model of neatness and thorough cultivation. Taking a general average, the Italian farmer produces more to the acre than the American employing native labor on the same grade of land. But, on the other hand, it is claimed by those in a position to know that the American farmer who employs Italian labor secures better results than the immigrant who farms independently. The reason the Italian farmer can raise more to the acre than the American with American labor is that the Italian always cultivates a small farm and attends to every detail himself; the American has more

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acreage under cultivation and native labor is not considered nearly so good as the immigrant farm hand.

As compared with those owned by natives the condition of farms owned by Italians is usually better. The Italian keeps his ditches clean, no weeds or grass are allowed to accumulate and every inch of land available is under cultivation. For example, on farms owned by natives there is usually a space along the ditches or on the edge of the fields which is not kept clean of grass and weeds, and near the houses the land is not cultivated. The Italian takes advantage of all this space, and around his house and the borders of his fields and ditches he raises enough vegetables to supply himself and family for the year.

The farms of immigrants are better cleared, all stumps, logs, and decayed roots being removed from the soil, and all holes and depressions carefully filled and graded.

Immigrants have introduced no new crops to the locality; the crops that are being raised at the present time were cultivated before any Italians ever came in. Nor have they changed the method of cultivation in any way. Very little machinery is used in the raising of the crops common to the locality. On the land rented on shares, all that is necessary is a seeder, a garden plow, and a cultivator, as the owner of the land has to prepare it for cultivation. The implements mentioned may be purchased for about $15. Italians who own land must have a plow and harrow or roller besides the machinery mentioned above. All the implements necessary should not cost over $50. The method of cultivation is almost entirely by hand. Onions, celery, carrots, and beets are usually planted in rows 14 inches apart, and it is impossible to use any machinery pulled by horses, else the crop would be trampled down. The cultivating is done with hoes or garden plows, and the weeds are pulled by hand. The harvesting also is done by hand.

Very few Italians own any live stock, the land being too valuable to use for pasture, and no hay or grain is raised for feed. Of the 14 farmers investigated only seven kept a horse and six only raised swine. No poultry is raised, for chickens or ducks would soon ruin any of the crops cultivated. None of the land is fenced, the ditches serving the purpose of boundary lines, and there is no live stock or poultry to keep out. Some of the fields are surrounded by hedges of poplar or cedar to serve as wind breaks, but this is an exception to the general rule.

Few, if any, immigrants have entered other industries since engaging in farming, and after becoming farm owners or tenants have remained in this branch of industry.

In raising the crops common to the locality, one man can cultivate about 2 acres, and a man, his wife, and two children can cultivate and show good results on from 4 to 6 acres. No American women work in the fields and only a few children, and these are boys between 12 and 16 years. On the other hand, all the Italians work, from the men and women down to children 6 or 7 years old. Thus, an Italian, his wife, and two children can cultivate from two to three times as much land as an American with the same size of family, and without employing outside help.

As before stated, the onion crop is the principal one produced by immigrants. Every one of the 14 farmers included in the Com

mission's inquiry raise onions, the average quantity per farm being 1,523 bushels, worth $599. Other crops, such as beets, corn, celery, carrots, potatoes, etc., are grown, but are considered auxiliary crops, and the Italian farmer devotes himself almost exclusively to the production of onions.

IMPROVEMENTS, BUILDINGS, SURROUNDINGS.

As in other colonies studied the Italian in this locality has evidently devoted more time to the cultivation and improvement of his farm than he has to building and repairing his home. In the settlement at Canastota most of the homes owned are comfortable and well finished, and there are several which are even pretentious. On the farms and in the settlement at Onion Town housing conditions are exactly the reverse. Here all buildings are built of cheap lumber and are poorly finished, many of them being temporary structures used as dwellings only in the summer. Nearly all are one story buildings and are covered with tarred roofing. They have from two to three rooms, and the one redeeming feature is the fact that the many cracks and openings insure perfect ventilation of the overcrowded interior. Some have converted old onion sheds into dwellings, while a few live in tents. One Italian and his family were found very snugly quartered in an old canal boat, which seemed very much out of place in the middle of the onion field.

Those Italians who reside on the farm both winter and summer have paid more attention to housing, and their dwellings are more substantial and better constructed to resist cold than those of the summer residents. The tenement houses furnished for their employees by American farm owners are roomy, well built, well finished and kept in good repair.

As the majority of the Italians keep no live stock, barns and stables are unnecessary, and the only outbuildings erected are onion sheds, where the crop is stored to dry. These buildings are flimsy, temporary wooden structures.

MARKETS AND MARKETING FACILITIES.

The principal markets of the country are available to Canastota through the adequate transportation lines of the New York Central and Hudson River, Lehigh Valley, and West Shore railways, and the Erie Canal. Nearly all crops produced, however, are marketed in New York City, Buffalo, and Philadelphia. Some immigrants sell to local commission merchants, who in turn send the produce to the above-named markets, while others sell direct to merchants in the cities mentioned.

There is no cooperative marketing, though there are several Italians who speculate in onions, buying from their countrymen in the fall and holding for an advance during the winter.

In preparing the onion crop for the market the onions are carefully screened, the larger ones being crated, while the smaller are sold in bulk to pickle factories. Celery is tied in bundles of a dozen or two dozen heads, washed, trimmed, and marketed. Potatoes and carrots are sold by the bushel and beets by the ton. The beets are sold to sugar-beet factories.