never democratize Germany by the mere negative process of depriving Nazis of their positions and influence. We must rather take an active part in the establishment of the essentials which I have outlined and proceed to restore German economic and political life upon the foundation which they provide. The Soviet Union objected to almost every proposal by the United States and Britain at Moscow, and the French vacillated between support of the Anglo-American stand and nonparticipation in the debates. However, the ministers did agree to meet again in London in November 1947 to continue discussions. Meanwhile, the announcement of the Marshall Plan and the Soviet boycott of its implementation widened the breach between East and West.

UNITED STATES DIRECTIVE ON OCCUPATION POLICY FOR GERMANY, WASHINGTON, JULY 11, 1947: .. Pending arrangements for the effective treatment of Germany as an economic and political unit, you will exert every effort to achieve economic unity with other zones. . . . It is an objective of the United States... that there should arise in Germany a form of political organization . . . which will lead to tranquillity.... you will continue to promote the development... of institutions of popular self-government.

...

.

[through] the establishment ... of federal German states .. and the formation of a central German government. . . . Your Government does not wish to impose its own historically developed forms of democracy and social organization on Germany and believes equally firmly that no other external forms should be imposed... [The United States] is opposed to an excessively centralized government ..[and] believes. . . the ultimate constitutional form of German political life should be left to the decision of the German people made freely in accordance with democratic processes.

The inference that the United States did not wish to see the Soviets impose their form of government upon Germany was not missed by the Russians, or by the rest of the world. The directive to General Clay grouped together for the first time all American policies for Germany

which had been announced since early 1946. In the economic sphere, the directive repudiated the Morgenthau Plan, although not in exact terms. The formal break with Russia over the German question came at the London meeting of the Big

Western

Big 3 negotiate unification of their zones in Germany

Four foreign ministers. In a realization that the U.S.S.R. would agree to a German peace settlement only on terms of its own choosing, the other three powers went ahead to negotiate the unification of the three western zones. Secretary Marshall issued a statement disclosing the fundamental disagreements between the Soviet and American positions on Germany and on Austria.

SECRETARY MARSHALL'S STATEMENT ON SOVIET POSITION AT CONFERENCE OF FOREIGN MINISTERS, LONDON, DECEMBER 15, 1947: . . . . We have failed to reach Secretary agreement on a treaty for Austria because the Soviet Union has demanded Marshall's for itself properties and special priviaccount of leges. . . . If Soviet claims were admitSoviet ted, it would be at the price of Austrian obstructionism independence and in violation of past agreements... the Soviet Delegation has persistently blocked agreement by reason of its unjustified demands on Austria. As regards Germany. Soviet practices in eastern Germany have prevented Germany from playing its part in the recovery of Europe. . . . The Soviet demand [for reparations] . . . is utterly impossible of achievement on practical economic grounds. It implies the establishment of an economic power so comprehensive that it would be in reality a power of life and death over any German government. . . . It is useless to debate the characteristics of a German government when actual governmental power would be elsewhere. . . . the United States has consistently pressed for certain fundamental decisions by the occupying powers themselves as the absolutely essential first step for the achievement of a unified Germany. Three delegations at this conference have registered their willingness to take these decisions here and now. The Soviet Union alone refuses to agree. . . . Therefore, I reluctantly conclude that no useful purpose would be served by a debate on the other points on our agenda.

midst of these efforts the Soviets attempted an intimidation of the population of Berlin by imposing a blockade upon the French, British, and American zones of that city in violation of the agreements guaranteeing free access across the Soviet occupation zone of Germany between Berlin and the various allied zones to the west. The only corridor left open from the west was through the air. From June 24, 1948, when the Soviet land blockade went into effect, until the barriers were lifted on May 12, 1949, the three western powers supplied the city of Berlin by air. This dramatic demonstration of the feasibility of airlifting food, fuel, manufactured goods, raw materials, and even industrial machinery to sustain a large city under siege did much to strengthen the support of the free world for the campaign against Soviet communism. Together with a counter-blockade of the Soviet zone of Germany by the three powers which the Soviets did not have the capability of breaking, the Berlin airlift of 1948-1949 kept the British, French, and American zones of Berlin out of the hands of the Soviet-controlled East German forces. In fact, after the first desperate months, the airlift permitted the western zones of Berlin to stockpile reserves which would have enabled the city to withstand communist efforts for many months into 1949 and 1950 if necessary.

The Berlin airlift defies the Soviet blockade

set up at Bonn, 1949

During the period of the airlift, the three western powers drew up their program for German economic rehabilitation and for the creation of a German federal republic. The German The three-power agreement of April Federal 1949 included a new occupation Republic statute to define the relations between the occupying authorities and the German Federal Republic. A basic law, or constitution, for this republic was approved by the three foreign ministers after it had been drawn up by a constitutional convention at Bonn, the city on the Rhine selected as the capital of the new nation. This basic law was ratified by the required number of German states on May 20, 1949 and the first free elections held in Germany since 1933 chose representatives to the Bundestag, or legislature, on August

Meanwhile the new charter of occupation called the Charter of the Allied High Commission for Germany was adopted on June 20, 1949. The Commission was composed of Charter of the three members, one each from High France, the United Kingdom, and Commission the United States. The powers of (HICOG) the occupation commanders were transferred to the High Commissioners, who were to sit as an Allied Council. The military government of the United States zone of occupation was terminated on September 21, 1949, and John J. McCloy, a civilian, took over the office of High Commissioner, succeeding General Clay as military commander.

This review, brief and episodic in comparison with the gravity of the subject, indicates the complexity of the German problem. In four years

from the time of its defeat at the Total hands of the Allies, Germany was unification in a position to bargain for advantage. The western zones, principally the goal of most Germans industrial and commercial strongholds, were unified under a democratic government, practically independent. The eastern zone, predominately agricultural, but with important mineral deposits, was the puppet of the

13 The formal title of the new German state is Bundesrepublik Deutschland (Federal Republic of Germany), but it is popularly called "The Bonn Republic" or "Western Germany." The Germans purposely left the word "Western" out of the title in order that a possible later unification of East and West Germany could continue to use the name Bundesrepublik.

Soviets. The overwhelming desire of most east and west Germans was for a reunified country-and both the Soviets and the French-British-American combination proclaimed their intention to effect that ultimate accomplishment. The Soviets were loud in their accusations that the western nations prevented this unification. Western Germany was aware of the need free Europe had for German manpower, technical knowledge, and industrial potential. Therefore the Bonn government could almost name its own price for cooperation with the west. Almost, but not quite -for there was always the spectre of the Red Army across the Elbe, poised to invade democratic Germany if the Bonn regime allied itself too closely to the west. Torn between its wish to see a united Germany and its dependence upon the west for defense against possible Soviet aggression, the German Federal Republic set out upon its formative years with the encouragement and sympathy of the United States as one of its strongest supports, (58)

5. Building the North Atlantic Treaty Organization

The Soviet decision to abandon the blockade of Berlin may have been reached in Moscow on the basis of the successful airlift operated by the

Was there a relationship

between Russia's abandonment

of Berlin

blockade

a

British and American air forces. What prompted Jakob Malik, Soviet representative at the UN, to approach the American delegate Philip Jessup with the suggestion that the blockade would be ended if the western powers removed the counter measures and scheduled a meeting of the foreign ministers' council, will probably remain mystery. But the juxtaposition of the date of Malik's suggestion, April 27, 1949, and the date of the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty, April 4, 1949, is too significant to be ignored. The negotiation and adoption of the North Atlantic Treaty with its creation of NATO14 must have served notice upon the U.S.S.R. that the West was determined to unite to protect western Europe and the peri

and the creation of NATO?

14 The initials NATO denote the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

pheral areas against aggression from the communist bloc to the east.

A preliminary step in the series of arrangements which culminated in the North Atlantic Treaty was taken on March 17, 1948 when the United Kingdom, France, Belgium, the The Netherlands and Luxembourg (the Brussels Pact, latter three known as the Benelux 1948 nations) signed the Brussels Pact. This mutual agreement bound these five western European nations to aid one another in the event of aggressive attack. Under its terms a Western Union Defense Organization was created to coordinate military planning and set up an overall command. Although the United States was outside the area contained in Western Union, its influence, especially in economic matters, was bound to be large and the European democracies looked to America for help and leadership.

The United States abandons a longtime policy

Then came the blockade of Berlin and other evidences that the Soviets were determined to oppose the West by all means within their power, short of actual war. The passage of the Vandenberg Resolution by the United States Senate on June 11, 1948, had asserted American belief that regional security pacts, such as the Brussels pact and similar arrangements, were possible under the UN Charter.15 So, it remained for the United States to extend its commitments to Europe from the economic to the political sphere. To do this meant taking a momentous step, for by joining foreign nations in a formal military alliance, the United States would finally forsake its position of official aloofness-a position maintained with much heat and some steadfastness since the French Revolutionary War Alliance of 1778 was terminated in 1798.16 Moreover, this would be a peacetime alliance, the first ever entered into by the United States.

In planning for NATO the area of Western Union was widened to include Italy, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, and Iceland from Europe, and

Canada and the United States from

Western Union North America. Therefore, the expands into North Atlantic Treaty became an NATO alliance or grouping of all the prin

15 See pp. 112-13 above. 16 See p. 4 above.

cipal nations surrounding the Atlantic Ocean frontiers north of the Tropic of Cancer. Spain was the conspicuous exclusion in Western Europe, with Sweden and Switzerland barred by their traditional neutrality from joining. (59) Inasmuch as the Organization of American States, the Charter for which had been agreed upon at the Bogota conference of March 30 to May 2, 1948, was planned as a regional pact for the Western Hemisphere to link in with existing and future regional arrangements, the Caribbean, Central and South American nations were not included in the treaty organization.

A mutual security pact linking North America and Western Europe

...

THE NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY, WASHINGTON, APRIL 4, 1949: The Parties to this Treaty reaffirm their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations. . . . They are determined to safeguard the freedom, common heritage and civilization of their peoples, founded on the principles of democracy, individual liberty and the rule of law. . . . They are resolved to unite their efforts for collective defense and for the preservation of peace and security. ARTICLE 1. The Parties undertake to settle any international disputes in which they may be involved by peaceful means. . . and to refrain . . . from the threat or use of force in any manner inconsistent with the purposes of the United Nations. . . . ARTICLE 3. In order more effectively to achieve the objectives of this Treaty, the Parties, separately and jointly, by means of continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid, will maintain and develop their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack. . . . ARTICLE 5. The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an attack against them all. . . . ARTICLE 6. For the purpose of Article 5 an armed attack on one or more of the Parties is deemed to include an armed attack on the territory of any of the Parties in Europe or North America, on the Algerian departments of France, on the occupation forces of any Party in Europe, on the islands under the jurisdiction of any Party in the North Atlantic area north of the Tropic of Cancer or on the vessels or aircraft in this area of any of the Parties.

ARTICLE 9. The Parties hereby establish a council, on which each of them shall be represented, to consider matters concerning the implementation of this Treaty. ... ARTICLE 10. The Parties may, by unanimous agreement, invite any other European state in a position to further the principles of this Treaty and to contribute to the security of the North Atlantic area to accede to this Treaty. . . .

By the terms of the Treaty any signatory might after ten or more years had passed request a

The United States accepts the treaty and leads in implementing

The part played by the United States in sponsoring the North Atlantic Treaty served to give the pact an impetus when it was sent to the Senate for ratification. In spite of spirited debate by opponents of American involvement in Europe the Senate voted 82 to 13 on July 21, 1949 to accept the Treaty. Thus, in this strong majority vote the United States served notice on the world that it had deserted one of its historic foreign policies to stand together with the nations of Western Europe in opposing the spread of international communism.

it

From the beginning, the United States took a leading part in setting up NATO. The military features of Western Union were incorporated in

NATO and in December 1950 PresGeneral ident Truman, at the invitation of Eisenhower the NATO Council, nominated becomes General Dwight D. Eisenhower to commander of command the organization's military NATO forces. General Eisenhower set up military forces SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Powers, Europe) in France, first in Paris and later at Fontainebleau, just outside that city.17 Field Marshal Montgomery of Great Britain was named Deputy Commander. The American Congress, following President Truman's request for approximately one and a half billions for military aid to our allies, voted $1,314,010,000 on October 28, 1949. And American units already in Europe were augmented by

17 Gen. Eisenhower left his NATO command in 1952 to seek the Republican party's nomination for the presidency. See p. 144 below.

air, sea, and ground forces sent from this country to help build the military strength of NATO.

Permanent council and Secretariat established for NATO

The NATO Council held its first meeting in Washington, September 17, 1949, with the foreign ministers of the member nations serving as the Council. One of the Council's earliest actions was to create a Defense Committee composed of the defense ministers of the twelve countries. This Committee, in turn, selected a Standing Group of three -the United States, Great Britain, and France. At the Lisbon meeting of the Council in February 1952 the Council was converted into a Council of Governments on which each member nation has a permanent representative. The Lisbon sessions also decided to set up a Secretariat and to establish permanent headquarters in Paris. Lord Ismay of the United Kingdom was chosen as Secretary General of NATO on March 12, 1952 and has continued in that post since then.

With the signing of the Treaty accomplished, the main concern of the United States was with economic and military support for the European members of the alliance. While the Marshall Plan had been helping to bolster the civilian economy of Western Europe, the added burden of military preparedness could not be carried by the ERP as it had been operating under the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948. It was in these circumstances that President Truman asked for the funds to give military support to NATO. As passed by Congress, the Mutual Defense Assistance Act of 1949 contained provisions for aid to nations outside the NATO area.

THE MUTUAL DEFENSE ASSISTANCE ACT, WASHINGTON, OCTOBER 6, 1949: ... The Congress hereby finds that the efforts of the United States and other countries to promote peace and security in furtherance of the purposes of the . . . United Nations require additional measures of support based upon the principle of continuous

Financial aid to NATO under MDAP

and effective self-help and mutual aid. These measures include the furnishing of military assistance essential to enable the United States and other nations dedicated to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. . . to participate effectively in arrangements for individual and collective self-defense. . . . the President is hereby authorized to furnish military assistance . . . to such

The President . . . is authorized to furnish military assistance as provided in this Act to Iran, the Republic of Korea, and the Republic of the Philippines. . . . In consideration of the concern of the United States in the present situation in China, there is hereby authorized to be appropriated to the President... $75,000,000 in addition to funds otherwise provided as an emergency fund for the President, which may be expended to accomplish in that general area the policies and purposes expressed in this Act. Under this act, a Mutual Defense Assistance Program (MDAP) was organized. This program has contributed materials of war as well as economic aid and technical assistance to a number of nations. The terms of the act were wide enough to allow for full development of the principles of mutual assistance. Initially there was some criticism by European recipients of American military equipment that the materiel was both in

Similar aid to other nations

Planning for the EDC

Shortly before the Lisbon meeting of NATO in February 1952 the French, British, German, and American foreign ministers reached an agreement on the establishment of a European Defense Community (EDC) which would embrace France, Italy, the Benelux nations, and Western Germany. This inclusion of the West German Republic in the EDC opened the way for extension of NATO membership to Germany. As drawn, the European Defense Community arrangements, however, did not mean that NATO would be superseded. NATO still would exercise overall direction of the unity of the North Atlantic community and EDC would be merely one of several regional groupings to make such a general organization as NATO more effective.

From the point of view of the American observer, the main accomplishments of NATO have