quently, inasmuch as they worked at piece-rates and kept longer hours, their daily wage was higher.

ADVANCE OF JAPANESE LABORERS

During late years the wages of Japanese laborers have advanced rapidly, both in the agricultural industries and others. Wherever there has been a strong demand for labor, the Japanese have been quick to take advantage of the opportunity. In this regard their organization under contractors has aided them materially, especially in connection with the supply of seasonal labor. In very many cases it is reported that the Japanese are untrustworthy, and that after they have taken a contract, at a certain fixt wage per day, just before the time of the maturing of the crop, when it is too late to secure other labor, they have struck for higher wages and have forced the employers to pay more than the contract wage. Many such cases are cited in the papers in the discussions concerning restriction of land holding. By the adoption of measures of this kind, in certain cases they have been able to force their wages even above those of white men; but ordinarily, if they have received more than white men, it has been because they have worked longer hours, or because the work in its character is especially disagreeable. More frequently they have worked at the same rate, and occasionally, even in late years, at a lower rate. The following brief table, giving the average wages per day earned by a specified number of farm laborers in California, by race, throws light upon the wages received by the different races:

AVERAGE WAGES PER DAY EARNED BY EACH SPECIFIED NUMBER OF FARM LABORERS IN CALIFORNIA, BY RACE

FARM OWNERS AND LEASEHOLDERS

Within the last few years the Japanese have become, to a very considerable extent, farm owners, or have taken to leasing farms. According to the returns made by the secretaries of the Japanese Association and to investigations of the Immigration Commission, in 1909, they owned 16,449 acres of agricultural land and leased 137,2331⁄2 acres more, 80,232 acres being leased for cash, the others on shares. These figures show that within the preceding five years the land owners have very greatly increased. In the year 1904 only 2,442 acres were owned and a correspondingly smaller number than in 1909 were leaseholds. Besides this amount of land ownership in California a considerable amount is controlled by the Japanese in other States: in Colorado, approximately 20,000 acres, in Idaho 7,072, in Washington 7,000, and so on, more than 90 per cent. of it being leased.

The investigation shows that the farms fall regularly under the control of the race which controls. the farm labor, especially in the case of the growing of sugar beets, vegetables and fruits. This advantageous position of the Japanese in the labor market has enabled them to secure land in this way in rather large tracts.

The conditions may be summed up as follows:

1. Because of the convenience of the tenant system and the difficulty experienced at times in securing laborers, there has been a strong inducement to lease land to a member of the race that could control labor most easily.

2. A further inducement has been found in the fact that both Chinese and Japanese, especially the Japanese, in order to establish their position, have offered so high a rent that in that way the owner could get the best returns on his land.

3. With the exception of one or two localities, the Japanese have been the strongest bidders for land, overbidding Chinese, Italians and native whites. Sometimes this bidding has been successful because they would cultivate land that white men would not lease for such small returns.

4. Much of the leasing is of the nature of a labor contract, under which the tenant does certain kinds of work and obtains a share of the crops. Recently, however, there has been a strong tendency for the Japanese to work independently either as cash tenants or as land owners.

5. Little capital has been required for the Japanese to become tenant farmers, because (1) they form partnerships readily among themselves; (2) the land owner often provides the necessary equipment for

share tenants; (3) the shippers and others who wish to control the crops often advance money; so that many of the Japanese farmers have begun leasing with very little capital.

6. The leasing of land to the Japanese, as well as to Chinese and Italians, has resulted in displacing laborers of other races, partly because white persons in general are disinclined to work for them, or because they themselves prefer to employ persons of their own race.

7. The Japanese farmers usually pay to their Japanese laborers more than the local rate, but this is because the working day is longer, and because they are able to make a selection of the best men of their

own race.

8. In growing strawberries, asparagus, and certain vegetables, the Japanese farmers have increased the acreage sometimes to so great an extent that the industry has become unprofitable both to themselves and others.

9. Because they have a strong desire to remain independent of wages, and because there have been limitations placed upon the various occupations in which they may engage, the Japanese farmers have been ready to gain control of land even tho the prospect was for only a very small profit.

DOMESTIC SERVICE AND MERCHANDIZING

The Japanese are employed somewhat as domestic servants, having 12,000 to 15,000 on the Coast in private families, together with help in hotels, barrooms, etc. Probably 10,000 or 11,000 more are engaged in Japanese business establishments of which there are probably not less than 3,500. In the case

of those engaged in domestic service, a very considerable proportion are boys in school or college, who work short hours, and receive small pay together with their board.

The Japanese have to a considerable extent entered into trade, even in lines in which white men have been inclined to compete. Most of the Japanese establishments which compete with white people have started within the last seven or eight years, being run in good part by men who had formerly been wage laborers. More and more, also, they are showing an inclination to seek the patronage of Americans. In attempting to establish themselves, as a rule, they set up establishments on a small scale with only a few employees. They cater first largely to people of their own race as customers. In attempting to compete with the whites, they usually underbid in prices. Very few white persons are employed in Japanese establishments. Usually, where there is competition between the whites and the Japanese, the Japanese work longer hours and pay lower wages. They have, in a number of cases, succeeded in cutting into the business of shopkeepers, especially those located near the Japanese quarters of the city.

SOCIETIES AND GUILDS

The Japanese are pretty well organized into societies and trade guilds. Moreover, they have their own charitable organizations, so that they seldom become public charges. Generally speaking, they make much less trouble than do the Mexicans or many of the Latin races as regards crime and misdemeanors, altho there have been many Japanese women engaged in prostitution.