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The same tendency was evident with regard to t executive positions by the various races. Only races among the immigrants exhibited any tendenc ing foremen. This is especially true of the Scotch ticularly the Scotch. In only one mining compa southern European foreman-an Italian who had ch Italians on a coal tipple. This same company emp foremen over negro gangs, which was an unusual district. For the most part, all of the executive po lowest, are occupied by native whites and Scotch. given for this condition by the employer is that the the Scotch or Welsh is preferred on account of his ap his sense of responsibility, which may be translated on the part of the employers.

The school attendance of immigrant children as their industrial progress would appear to show a diffe that stated above, for the children of all immigrants But the second generation has not yet appeared in t district, except the children of the older and Englishgrants, so that while the percentage of attendance of dren at school is perhaps high on account of the employees are assessed by the companies for scho described in another section of this report, the effect ance has not yet had time to appear except in rare in In these instances, however, where the second appeared, regardless of the races, it has been the ex employers who had a basis for an opinion that the sec is far superior to the first in every way. None of the pean races of the first generation exhibit any great a English beyond a certain limit, which is to carry on a sation on restricted subjects; but their children, largely attendance upon school and their association with t native Americans, exhibit a great progress in this dire

To sum up, therefore, the consensus of the opinions of regarding the progress of the immigrants by races it very slow progress has been shown by any of the south races, and that they do not believe that length of re have any effect upon their position. The first gener races as a whole is regarded as incapable of progress in is fit for the unskilled occupations only. On the ot older immigrants, such as the Scotch, Welsh, and I nearly if not quite the same degree of progress in the in as the native whites, while the negroes as a general rule a little better than the southern European races. Th comparative racial efficiency and preference by race o the employers is given in greater detail in the two follow

GENERAL EFFICIENCY, BY RACES.

As a general conclusion from the statement of en native whites, Scotch, Welsh, English, and, in fact, all European races are considered much more efficient tha or the races of southern Europe. Very little if any diff

various northern European races or among the nativa wh

The American whites, English, Welsh, Scotch, Irish, wedes, etc., are generally thought to be equally capable good workmen. Only individual distinctions, rather than ctions, were expressed. With the exception of the South e races of recent immigration were not represented in umbers for comparison with the native employees. An Fact is the practically universal opinion among employers Italians are extremely inefficient and the most inefficient , whether immigrant or native. The only exception to was that of the officials of one large steel company, who he belief that under conditions of "mixing" races, or groes and Italians work together in the same occupations, d in another section of this report, the Italians could be into efficient workers. This company stated that they ed good results from this system. As a general rule, outh Italians, who in the Birmingham district are chiefly ere classed with Macedonians, Lithuanians, and Bulgarians nt and to be used only when the supply of native or other labor was inadequate to the demand.

opinion of the employers whose experience with all races ufficient basis for comparison, the negro, as compared with classes of employees already described, occupies a position mediate nature. This applies, of course, to unskilled and I labor, as only native whites and the best class of northern races are employed in the skilled occupations. In spite of ssness which is attributed generally by employers to the ey are regarded as distinctly superior in all unskilled work I plants to southern European immigrants.

ORDER OF PREFERENCE, BY RACES.

ference, according to race, for employees as expressed by yers in the Birmingham district follows very closely their of the relative racial efficiency of the different races whom engaged in their mines and plants. To a very small extent reference tempered by racial prejudices, other than the which prejudice influenced their estimates of efficiency. A on of the preferences of all employers, particularly the larger have had most experience with immigrants, shows that Scotch, Welsh, French, and Irish are classed with native s the first choice. No distinctions were made among the med races, except where a preference for native whites in cupations was expressed. Germans were preferred first after ces in the one or two cases where they were employed. were the second choice of practically all employers, only one of another race not already included in the above being , the race in question being Italians. Slovaks were premore employers than any other race as third choice, although ouped all southern European races together. Those having est number of immigrants in their employ, however, put in a higher class than Italians, Macedonians, Bulgarians,

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CHAPTER VI.

ENERAL COST AND STANDARD OF LIVING.

study-Summary statement relative to representative householdsve household expenditures for food and general living purposes-Retail

1.

EXPLANATION OF STUDY.

ed study was made of the cost of living of the iron and s and their households in the Birmingham district. Infora selected families was secured, however, which affords an the cost of living in the district, and is chiefly important ng upon the prevailing standards of living. With this has been considered wise to submit detailed data relative and living conditions and methods of living, in order that onception of the situation may be gathered from the salient t representative households and persons. This summary relative to selection of households immediately follows. tation is by race of head of household.

STATEMENT RELATIVE TO REPRESENTATIVE HOUSEHOLDS. HOUSEHOLD No. 1.-SOUTH ITALIAN.

usehold is composed of husband, wife, son, and daughter, espectively 32, 28, 4, and 2 years of age. The husband and born in Italy and have been in the United States six years. dren were born in the United States. The husband is an does not expect to make his permanent home in this The husband and wife can read and write their native having attended school abroad, and the former is able to lish, though the wife and children do not possess this ability. use in which they reside is a frame building for which a rent of $6 is paid. It contains two rooms, one being used as groom, and one a sleeping room, living room, and kitchen 1. The apartment is in good repair, and is clean and well here is no bath in the house, the water coming from a hydrant which supplies seven other families. The closet, which is in the yard and is used by seven families. Heat is supplied cooking stove and light from oil lamps, no electricity or gas ailable.

usband and wife are the sole support of the family, the former à unskilled laborer in the steel mills, for which he receives r day, and the latter earning $8 per month as a seamstress. band worked the full time during the year and his total earnounted to $405. The cost of food was $20 per month, and ving for rent and fuel, light and clothing, $150 was saved out otal year's earnings. A house and lot are owned, worth $300,

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longs to no trade unions or other organizations. lished in Italian is read. Before coming to the husband was a soldier in the regular army of Italy seamstress. The head of the household stated th United States to secure higher earnings.

HOUSEHOLD No. 2.-SOUTH ITALIAN.

This household consists of the husband who is 50 who is 42 years old, three daughters who are respect years of age, and one son aged 9 years. The man married in Italy eighteen years ago. The head of t been in the United States between one and two years children four months. None of the family can sp all are illiterate. The husband is an alien, but exp permanent home in this country.

The house in which this family resides is a detache in an Italian colony. It contains two rooms, which rooms, living rooms, dining room, and kitchen. The fair repair and the rooms show little care or attention plied by oil lamps and heat by the cooking stove. A of the house supplies the water. There is no bath. is flush, is in the yard and is used by four other fami The head of the household is an unskilled laborer earning $1.15 per day. He worked only nine month owing to industrial depression. His total earnings am all of which has been expended for the support of th head is in debt $166; $106 of this amount is money bo his family over from Italy and $60 is owed in store husband belongs to no trade union or other organ abroad he was a farmer. He left Italy hoping to imp tion and came to the United States because he had rel

HOUSEHOLD No. 3.-NORTH ITALIAN.

This household is composed of the husband, aged 2 is 25, two sons, aged 4 and 2, and one daughter 2 mo house, which is only in fairly good repair, is a detached f of two rooms, both of which are used for sleeping purp for living rooms and kitchen. The apartment is not wel is no bath in the house, the water being piped to a hydra where there is also a dry closet. Heat is provided b stove and light by kerosene lamps. All of the fam youngest child were born abroad and have been in the one year. None speak, read, or write English. The ho and is uncertain as to whether or not he will make th permanent home. He is the sole support of the fam ployed as an unskilled laborer in the yard of a steel mil day. He worked only eight months during the past y time being due to the industrial depression; he earned which was used for the support of the family. His occup was that of shoemaker and he had $60 in cash when he United States. He was a member of a beneficial society has joined no trade unions or other organizations in

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