existing projects-Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo-the latter concerned with basic biology and the study of extraterrestrial life.

Before we begin to discuss the Biotechnology and Human Research Program, it seems appropriate to mention the responsibilities of the Office of Advanced Research and Technology (OART). NASA Advanced Research and Technology stems from the statement of the purpose of the Astronautic and Space Act of 1958: That one of our missions is to conduct research into the problems of flight within and outside the earth's atmosphere, with a view for their practical solution; to discover new ideas, materials, methods, and devices for space exploration and aeronutronics utilization; to develop and find ability and limitations of promising ideas; and to improve quality and performance of components and systems for space and aeronautical use.

Advanced Research and Technology (ART) is divided into two parts, that is, project and program oriented ART. The first project-oriented ART is advanced technical development necessary to accomplish a single project that has been approved in a "Project Developed Plan" (PDP), and is managed by a headquarters program (mission) office. The second is programmatic-an ART that is directed toward future requirements and/or toward several projects. Program ART is managed by OART. The Biotechnology and Human Research Program falls within the second category, while aerospace medicine in the first. Like OART, Biotechnology and Human Research has four principal methods of carrying out its programs: (1) in-house, (2) outside, (3) place and monitor outside contracts from headquarters, and (4) authorize other program offices (OSS,. OMSF, etc.) to get it done.

The systems approach was utilized to arrive at a Biotechnology and Human Research Program. This is outlined in the diagram above (fig. 280). The interactions of man, man-machine, man-system with the environment, the requirements, engineering, and simulation, flight test, and finally evaluation, are shown in the diagram.

Human research involves the study of man under normal and unusual conditions in order to determine the functions of man's subsystems-musculo-skeletal, cardiovascular, digestive, nervous, endocrine, respiratory, sensory, and excretoryagainst the various environmental conditions, such as astmosphere, acceleration, radiation, electrostatic, magnetic, and thermal.

The psychophysiological and behavioral sciences study man's capabilities and limitations under normal conditions, individual stress conditions, and combined stress conditions. Research of this nature will reveal the habitability requirements. The basic requirements of man lead to the development of equipment and instrumentation for research. The data obtained therefrom lead to design criteria for life-support systems, personal equipment, protective systems, and man-machine control, which include information handling, displays, and controls. A representation of the broad-based NASA Life Sciences Program is given in the following table. A review of several government and company funded life sciences programs follows:

NASA life sciences representative research tasks

SUBJECTS

INSTITUTIONS

Continued research on photosynethetic gas ex- General Dynamics. changer for spacecraft-extends period of per

formance.

Determination of optimal environment and shield- Ling-Temco-Vought. ing against meteorites.

Application and instrumentation of visual per- Sylvania Electric Products. ception for space exploration.

Establish human-factors criteria and control- Dunlap and Associates. navigation display-system requirements for

spacecraft missions.

Investigation of control-display problems occur- Douglas Aircraft. ring in accelerative flight phases of high-per

formance vehicles.

Conversion of carbon dioxide for use in closed MSA Research Corp. cabin atmosphere by a single-step method,

utilizing the carbon dioxide expired by man

and water recovered from normal physiological processes.

Investigation of variation of electro-neuro-physi- Henry Ford Hospital. ological correlates and task performance under

conditions of controlled stimuli.

Determine feasibility of regenerating carbo- FMC Corp. hydrates from carbon dioxide and water by

physico-chemical techniques.

Recovery of oxygen by catalytic disassociation of General Electric.

carbon dioxide at low pressure.

Design, contact, and deliver tactual sensing sys- Stanford Research Institute.

tem.

Physiological and psychological responses to Navy Bureau of Medicine. force environments generated by rotational

motions occurring in operation of aircraft and

space vehicles.

Cardiovascular-respiratory system reactions of AF Systems Command. man to accelerations of various directions and

durations.

Experimental studies to determine tolerance and AF Systems Command. effects of vibration on human subjects.

Study of radiation instrumentation, shielding, and Aerospace Medical Center. biological effects; and determine design criteria

of shielding required on manned space vehicles.

Extends period of performance techniques for Columbia Univ. (L. O'Neill). continuous measurement of blood flow through

intact vessels of animals in space vehicles.

Performance research or techniques and instru- Univ. of California.

mentation for measurement of physiological

variables in primates under space conditions.

Behavioral research and experimental analysis of University of Maryland.

complex behavioral repertories under full en

vironmental control.

Research in cerebral neurophysiology and its ap- UCLA.

plication to monitoring. Physiological states

of subhumans and humans in space flight con

ditions.

Biological and physiological studies of Perog- Northrop Corp.
nathus (pocket mice) to determine their use-
fulness as experimental animals for space re-
search.

Conduct research directed toward development
of biopacks and experiments for use in space.
Investigation of hypothermia for mechanism by
which it injures living cells.

Research on closed chemical systems for reduction of carbon dioxide to oxygen and carbon.

AEC.

Navy Bureau Medicine.

Isomet Corp.

Spacelabs, Inc., has been conducting studies of biotelemetry and animal instrumentation. Its Model 130 Impedance Pneumograph, using two EKG electrodes, measures respiratory rate and tidal volume. During respiration, an impedance change produces an output wave form from which respiration rate and tidal volume can be determined. Spacelabs, Inc., has also been evaluating pulse-wave velocity concerning the cardiovascular system. Results look promising, not in presenting blood pressure, but for flow measurement of cardiovascular dynamics. Hughes Aircraft has devised a 12-channel miniaturized physiological data telemetry system. Twelve signals from sensors and transducers are inverted into FM signals impressed on carriers ranging from 960 cps to 3 kc. With the present power system utilizing batteries, eight hours of operation can be obtained. However, using the EKG system alone, for example, gives about 40 hours' operation. Basic research activities are being conducted to complement studies on bacteria and low pressures on the order of 10 to -8 mm Hg. Lower pressures are contemplated, if such reductions can be measured accurately.

Northrop Corp. has a life sciences section with four laboratories-bioengineering, behavioral sciences, biodynamics, and bioastronautics. Northrop designed the Manned Rotation Simulator for the School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks AFB. It consists of a 10-ft. diam. sphere of fiberglass-honeydome structure that floats on an air pedestal about 6 ft. in diam. Inside the sphere, three inertial rings mounted in a pitch and yaw axis are activated by batterydriven electric motors. At the sphere's center is an adjustable seat which helps place the axis of rotation either through the vestibular area of the brain or the center of gravity, or any place in between. The device rotates between 50 to 70 r.p.m. It could prove a very useful laboratory tool.

Martin Co. is continuing its algae studies on closed ecological systems. In conjunction with this research, plant material studies are also underway.

AiResearch Div., Garrett Corp., has developed 7500 p.s.i. oxygen bottles for the Mercury program. These have proved reliable, and are about 3.2 lb/lb. of useful oxygen for SAE 4340SG; and a little for C120 AV Ti. These bottles and continued development of lightweight molded high-pressure oxygen tanks will find many uses in aerospace systems. AiResearch prefers the two gaseous (N2+02) system and is developing zero-g cryogenic supercritical storage systems for weight reduction. The Division is considering the combined utilization of subsystems, such as the use of water from hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells. At AiResearch a new Cryobiology department has been established to develop hypothermic techniques, which maintain organs or parts of organs down to 200 deg. for possible organ transplant or food storage.

Douglas Aircraft has conducted life sciences experiments in a variety of areas. They are conducting simulated sealed cabin studies in a lox tank of a Thor missile. This is an excellent research tool inasmuch as it constitutes a flight-tested piece

of hardware about 7 ft. in diam. and 20 ft. long. The completely sealed tank was maintained in this mode for a couple of months, and provided valuable information and experience in leak detection and sealing techniques. This experimental work points up the feasibility of utilizing expended and recoverable large tanks of vehicles in orbit, and also opens up the possibility of utilizing large tanks, such as the Saturn 8-4 stage, for early space stations or space shelters in emergency. Advanced display and control systems will be placed in the tank and connected to a three-dimensional analog simulator so that human performance studies can be accomplished. The sealed tank is also useful as an excellent test bed for a variety of advanced life-support systems.

In its study of subgravity, Douglas performed human experiments with an integrated harness and helium-filled balloons. Preliminary data revealed significant information. In order to study the combined psychophysiological effects and problems of motion sickness, disorientation, and equilibrium, and to obtain design requirements for rotating space systems, a crazy room was constructed and mounted on a vehicle. Test subjects were placed on horizontal and vertical tilt tables within the room as the truck was driven in 50 ft. plus diameter circles at various revolutions per minute. These preliminary experiments were extremely interesting and highlight the design problems which will probably confront us if we insist on rotating space vehicles with a shortarm radius.

A new approach had to be devised in order to construct the room with proper aerodynamic controls, place it on the end of the large crane and, with the available control, spin the room in the air at various radii and revolutions per minute. This device should be completed and tested in the near future.

Beckman Instruments has directed its efforts in the last several years toward atmospheric analysis, both in the monitoring and process control of atmospheres. Other studies include the development of oxygen and CO, sensors as well as the development and testing of a gas chromatograph. Such prototype instruments were developed for JPL during lunar missions and for analysis of closed atmospheres. This final flight unit is housed in an 8 by 8 by 10 in. package weighing 12 lb. and uses 10 w. of power. It will measure 28 complements from lunar dust. Recently, Boeing completed a successful three-man 7-day sealed-capsule experiment in its altitude chambers. This was an integrated man and hardware test. A sodium superoxide system was used. The three subjects drank purified water, ate frozen food, collected their waste, and performed 11 tasks. Longer duration tests are planned.

Spacesuits.-A review of U.S. and U.S.S.R. spacesuit development reveals some similarities, but differences in objectives and design philosophies. American progress is well-known and need not be covered here, except to say that significant progress in suit pressurization and mobility have been achieved. One of the American groups specializing in protective systems is concentrated at the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center under Stanley White. The United States has developed a variety of configurations and designs for a number of intra- and extravehicular missions. The American philosophy goes beyond the mere survival aspect of the spacesuit. Comfort and performance under pressure are considered vital to the completion of the mission. Under certain conditions the spacesuit could be used as the primary life-support system (fig. 281).

Soviet spacesuit development has a long and not too well appreciated history. It appears that their prime objective has always been to use pressure suits as backup systems for emergency purposes only.

During discussions with Vladamir Yazdovsky last year, while he was examining the NASA Mercury spacesuit, he stated the pressure used in the Soviet spacesuit was atm. or 74 psia. When confronted with "but you will immobilize the man, he noted that the Vostok was very reliable and the suit was used for emergency purposes, not for calisthenics.

Spacesuit development in the Soviet Union goes back many years. It is important to note that on Jan. 12, 1949, a book entitled "Pressure Suits and Oxygen in Life-Preserving Equipment for High-Altitude Flights" ("Skafandry I. Kislorodno Spasa Telnama Apparatura Dlia Vysothvkh Poletov") by A. I. Khromushkin and edited by M. N. Rabinovich, Lt. Col., Eng., was published there. It dealt with theory and design of oxygen life-preserving equipment and pressure suits intended for use by flight-test and aviation section engineers, pilots, technicians, and all other workers in the field of high-altitude flying. The physiological factors concerned with design were considered indispensable.

The most significant factor about this book is that as early as 1948 the Soviets had an operating regenerative pressure suit. The book described in detail three designs-blower-type, regenerative jet, and lox-type-and indicates a preference

for the so-called regenerative jet system. In this design, "oxygen from the cylinder passes through a canister and enters the jet at a pressure of 6 a.t.m. At this pressure the jet of the installation illustrated discharges 2.5 liter per minute The oxygen jet draws the used air from the suit in passing through the canisters and the air is cleaned of carbon dioxide and water vapor. The purified air is returned to the suit with 2.5 liters of oxygen per minute added to it. Hence, while the system is in operation the air is continuously purified and enriched with oxygen. Excess air in the suit is exhausted into the atmosphere through an atmospheric valve." The illustration at left shows the early regenerative jet pressure suit system.

At this time let us review the regenerative canisters used in these early suits, since they apparently are the forerunners of the present spacesuit. The absorbent for carbon dioxide used in the canisters of 1948 pressure-suit systems is KhPI (khimicheskii poglotitel izvestkovyi-chemical absorbent, calcareous), an absorbent of the "Cardoxide" type. Silica gel is used to absorb the water vapor. Data regarding these absorbents are documented in the book.

To quote further from the book:

"The main drawback to using lime is that the particles tend to stick together and form a solid mass under the influence of moisture. However, more recently methods have been developed to process calcium hyroxide so that the lime remains in granular form even when completely spent.

"The KhPI absorbent has a number of favorable qualities. It does not liquefy; it liberates comparatively little heat in reacting with CO2. Because the mixtures (MnSO4, AlFe, etc.) act as both cementing and catalytic agents, the absorbing capability of KhPI under the conditions obtained in regenerative canisters is fairly satisfactory. No caking takes place during operation.