Lapas attēli
PDF
ePub

ers, or unskilled laborers in their native lands. The only exception is afforded by the Hebrews, threefifths of whom were engaged in some form of manufacturing or hand-trades before coming to this country.*

ILLITERACY AND INABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH

The new immigrant labor supply, owing to the fact that it is composed of men of non-English-speaking races, and is characterized by a high degree of illiteracy, has been found to possess but small resources upon which to develop industrial efficiency and advancement. Owing to their segregation and isolation from the native American population in living and working conditions, their progress in acquiring the use of the English language and in learning to read and write, has been very slow.

THEIR NECESSITOUS CONDITION

Another salient fact in connection with the recent immigrant labor supply has been the necessitous condition of the newcomers upon their arrival in American industrial communities. Immigrants from the South and East of Europe have usually had but a few dollars in their possession when their final destination in this country has been reached. During the past five years, 1905-1909, the average amount of money in the possession of each person among these immigrants when they reached their port of disembarka

* In Appendix E detailed statistical tables will be found substantiating the statements made in this chapter relative to the personal and industrial characteristics of recent immigrants from southern and eastern Europe as contrasted with those of former years from Great Britain and western Europe. These tables show (1) Industrial condition of immigrants abroad; (2) general literacy; (3) ability to speak English; (4) conjugal condition; and (5) congestion within immigrant households.

tion was about one-third as much as among immigrants from northern and western Europe. Consequently, finding it absolutely imperative to engage in work at once, they have not been in a position to take exception to wages or working conditions, but must obtain employment on the terms offered or suffer from actual want.

LOW STANDARDS OF LIVING

The standards of living of the recent industrial workers from the South and East of Europe have also been very low. Furthermore, the recent immigrants being usually single, or, if married, having left their wives abroad, have in large measure adopted a group instead of a family living arrangement, and thereby have reduced their cost of living to a point far below that of the American or of the older immigrant in the same industry. The method of living often followed is that commonly known as the "boardingboss" system, which has already been described in considerable detail.

Under this general method of living, which prevails among the greater proportion of the immigrant households, the entire outlay for necessary living expenses of each adult member ranges from $9 to $15 each month. The additional expenditures of the recent immigrant wage-earners are small. Every effort is made to save as much as possible. The entire life interest and activity of the average wage-earner from southern and eastern Europe has seemed to revolve about three points: (1) to earn the largest possible amount under the existing conditions of work; (2) to live upon the basis of minimum cheapness, and (3) to save as much as possible. All living arrange

ments have been subordinated to the desire to reduce the cost of living to its lowest level. Comfort seems not to be considered.

LACK OF PERMANENT INTEREST

Another salient characteristic of recent immigrants who have sought work in American industries has been that, as a whole, they have manifested but a small degree of permanent interest in their employment in any industry. They have constituted a mobile, migratory, and disturbing wage-earning class, constrained mainly by their immediate economic interest, and moving readily from place to place according to changes in working conditions or fluctuations in the demand for labor.

This condition of affairs is made possible by the fact that so large a proportion of the recent immigrant employees are single men, or married men whose wives are abroad, and by the additional fact that the prevailing method of living among immigrant workmen is such as to enable them to detach themselves from an occupation or a locality whenever they may wish. Their accumulations also are in the form of cash or are quickly convertible into cash. In brief, the recent immigrant has no property or other constraining interests which attach him to a community, and the larger proportion are free to follow the best industrial inducements. This characteristic has both a good and a bad influence. It creates a certain flexibility in the labor supply, and to a certain extent brings about an exodus from the country in times of depression and curtailment of employment. It also causes an increased pressure and competition within the country during a period of industrial depression.

TRACTABILITY OF THE IMMIGRANT

To the characteristics of recent immigrant wageearners already described, should be added one other. The members of the larger number of races of recent entrance to the mines, mills and factories have been tractable and easily managed. This quality seems to be a temperamental one, acquired through past conditions of life in their native lands. In the normal life of the mines, mills and factories, the southern and eastern Europeans have exhibited a pronounced tendency toward being easily managed by employers and toward being imposed upon without protest, which has created the impression of subserviency. This characteristic, while strong, is confined, however, to the immigrant wage-earners of comparatively short residence in this country, and results from their lack of training or experience abroad, and from the difference between their standards and aspirations and those of older immigrant employees and native American industrial workers.

The Inefficiency of the Immigrants Has Encouraged the Use of Machinery

If the characteristics of the recent immigrant labor supply to the United States, as outlined above, be carefully borne in mind, the conditions which have been produced by their employment may be quickly realized.

As regards the general industrial effects, it may be said, in the first place, that the lack of skill and industrial training of the recent immigrant to the United States has stimulated the invention of mechanical

methods and processes which might be conducted by unskilled industrial workers as a substitute for the skilled operatives formerly required. This condition of affairs obviously must have been true, or the expansion of American industry within recent years would not have been possible. A large number of illustrations of this tendency might be cited. Probably three of the best, however, are the automatic looms and ring spindles in the cotton-goods manufacturing industry, the bottle-blowing and casting machines in bottle and other glass factories, and the machines for mining coal.

The Employment of the Immigrant Has Changed the Form of Industrial Organization

Another, but rather minor, general industrial effect of the employment of the southern and eastern Europeans is observable in the increase in the number of sub-foremen in many industries. This situation arises principally from the fact that the recent immigrants are usually of non-English-speaking races, and therefore require a larger amount of supervision than the native Americans and older immigrants from Great Britain and northern Europe. The function of the subordinate foreman is largely that of an interpreter.

As regards other changes in industrial organization and methods, probably the most important effect observable is seen in the creation of a number of special occupations, the incumbents of which perform all the dangerous or responsible work which before the employment of southern and eastern Europeans was distributed over the entire operating force. An excellent example of this tendency is to be found in the newly

« iepriekšējāTurpināt »