100 per cent who worked three months or over. Of the foreign-born males, the Irish show the highest per cent who worked for each specified period of time excepting nine months or over, the Poles the lowest per cent who worked twelve months, and the Turks the lowest per cent who worked nine months or over, six months or over, and three months or over.

THE IMMIGRANT AND ORGANIZED LABOR.

The small extent to which the employees were members of labor organizations is shown in the following table, which sets forth, by general nativity and race of individual, the affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over in the households studied in the East:

TABLE 49.-Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over who are working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.

Of the 710 males for whom information was obtained, only 5.5 per cent are affiliated with trade unions, the proportion of foreign-born being slightly below the proportion shown for all males and very much below the proportion shown by the native-born of foreign father, while of the native-born of native father, whites, not one of those for whom information was obtained is affiliated with trade unions. Among the foreign-born it will be noted that no South Italians or Turks, only 2.6 per cent of the Irish, and a slightly larger proportion each of the Germans and Poles are affiliated with trade unions. On the other hand, the Slovaks show a very large proportion, or 52.2 per cent, so affiliated. Among the native-born of foreign father the Irish show a much larger proportion affiliated with trade unions than do the Germans. This position of the Irish and Germans native-born of foreign father, it will be noted, is just the reverse of the foreign-born.

CHAPTER V.

HOUSING AND LIVING CONDITIONS.

Rent in its relation to standard of living-Boarders and lodgers-Size of apartments occupied-Size of households studied-Congestion [Text Tables 50 to 62 and General Tables 27 to 38].

RENT IN ITS RELATION TO STANDARD OF LIVING.

The rent payments of the households the heads of which were employed in the leather tanning and finishing industry are chiefly significant because of their bearing upon standards of living. Congestion within the households arises from the practice, especially in the case of households the heads of which are of recent immigration, to crowd persons in their apartments in order to reduce the per capita outlay for rent. The first table submitted shows the average rental per month, per apartment, per room, and per person, according to general nativity and race of head of household.

TABLE 50.-Average rent per month, by general nativity and race of head of household, (STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

The above table shows the average rent per apartment to be $10 80, per room $2.12, and per person $1.81. Persons native-born of foreign father pay the highest rent per apartment; native-born of native father follow, while foreign-born pay less than nativeborn of foreign father. Persons native-born of native father show the

highest rent per room per month; foreign-born and native-born of foreign father follow in the order named. Native-born of native father also show the highest average rent per person per month, followed by native-born of foreign father, while foreign-born show an average monthly rent per person less than native-born of native father. Of the native-born of foreign father, Germans pay a higher monthly rental per apartment, per room, and per person than do the Irish. Foreignborn show Turkish households having the highest rent per apartment per month, while Polish show the lowest. Slovaks pay a much higher rent per month per room than the other races shown and South Italians the lowest rent per room. Irish and German households pay a considerably higher rent per person than the other races and Polish the lowest rent per person. It will be observed that although Turkish households pay the highest rent per apartment, they show a comparatively low rent per person, and though Slovaks pay a low monthly rent per apartment, they show the highest rent per room and a very low rent per person. Poles also report a low rent per apartment and a comparatively high rent per room. Irish and German rank second and third, respectively, in the amount of rent paid per apartment. The range of monthly rentals for apartments is set forth in the following table, which shows, by general nativity and race of head of household, the percentage of households paying each specified rent per month per apartment:

TABLE 51.-Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per apartment, by general nativity and race of head of household.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

The preceding table shows that of 293 households studied 2.7 per cent pay under $5 rent per month per apartment, 19.8 per cent pay under $7.50, 45.7 per cent pay under $10, 74.7 per cent pay under $12.50, 82.3 per cent pay under $15, and 94.5 per cent pay under $20 rent per month per apartment. The households the heads of which are foreign-born show 3.6 per cent paying under $5 rent per month per apartment as contrasted with no households the heads of which are native whites born of native father and no households

the heads of which are native-born of foreign father paying under this amount. It should be noted that a very much higher percentage of the households whose heads are of foreign birth pay under $7.50 and under $10 than the households the heads of which are native-born of native father and native-born of foreign father. Of the households the heads of which are foreign-born, those whose heads are Poles and South Italians show a small percentage paying under $5 and a considerably larger per cent paying under $7.50 per month per apartment as contrasted with no households the heads of which are Irish and Turkish paying under these amounts. The households the heads of which are Poles and South Italians show a considerably higher per cent paying under each of the specified amounts than the households the heads of which are either Irish or Turks, while the households the heads of which are Irish show a higher percentage paying under each specified amount of rent per apartment per month than the households the heads of which are Turks.

The table next presented shows, by general nativity and race of head of household, the percentage of households paying each specified rent per month per room:

TABLE 52.-Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per room, general nativity and race of head of household.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS) ·

by

[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

The totals of the preceding table show 98 per cent of households paying under $4 rent per month per room; 92.2 per cent paying under $3; 34.8 per cent paying under $2; while 0.3 per cent pay under $1 rent per month per room. No households among the native-born of native father or native-born of foreign father pay under $1 rent per month per room, while only 0.5 per cent of foreign-born pay under the above-mentioned amount. Native-born of foreign father report the highest percentage of households paying under $2 rent per month per room. Native-born of foreign father also report the highest percentage of households paying under $3 rent per room per month, native-born of native father and foreign-born following in the order named, all reporting over 90 per cent paying under the above

mentioned monthly rental. Native-born of native father report 100 per cent of households paying under $4 rent per room per month, native-born of foreign father and foreign-born reporting a slightly lower percentage.

Of the foreign-born races, South Italians alone show a small proportion of households paying under $1 rent per room per month. Polish households show the highest percentage paying under $2 rent per room per month, Irish follow with a slightly lower percentage, while South Italian and Turkish households show considerably smaller proportions than the two races first named. Irish report 100 per cent of households paying under $3 rent per month, Turkish, South Italian, and Polish following in the order named, all showing over 90 per cent. All of the foreign-born races show 100 per cent of households paying under $4 per room per month, except Poles, who show a slightly lower percentage.

The real situation relative to congestion is set forth in the following table. Crowding within the households is indicated by the large proportion of households having a low-rent payment per capita. The table shows, by general nativity and race of head of household, the per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per person: TABLE 53.-Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per person, by general nativity and race of head of household.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

The preceding table shows that 9.2 per cent of the households studied pay under $1 rent per month per person, 52.6 per cent pay under $2 per person, 78.5 per cent under $3, and 90.1 per cent under $4 rent per month per person. Foreign-born report à much higher per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per person than native-born of fore in father.

It will be observed that a very small percentage of native-born of foreign father pay under $1 per month per person, while no households of native-born of native father pay under this amount.

Of the foreign-born no households the heads of which are Irish pay under $1 rent per month per person, while the per cent paying