APPENDIXES APPENDIX 1 A TREATISE ON NUCLEAR PROPULSION IN SURFACE SHIPS (Prepared at the direction of the Chief of Naval Operations by the Chairman, Ship Characteristics Board, to provide background information for statements and discussion, April 5, 1961) 1. Introduction PART I. INFORMATIVE a. The whole new era of submarine operations that resulted from the utilization of nuclear propulsion rested in large measure on two decisive aspects: First, the elimination of the requirement for oxygen for the main engines which provided the protracted capability for remaining submerged; and, second, the greatly increased endurance for high sustained speeds. These led to innovational changes in operational concepts, of which the Polaris nuclear submarine weapon system is one and the potent ASW submarine is another. b. The protracted endurance for high-speed operations potential can be applied to surface ships with even greater emphasis, for their average operational speeds are greater and consequently generate the need for more frequent refueling. The recognition of this potential led to the construction of three nuclear propelled surface ships, one CVA(N), one CG(N), and one DLG(N), to explore the benefits in a variety of combatant ships. The other aspect of protracted submergence has no currently identifiable parallel for surface ships. 2. Relative costs a. When the inclusion of nuclear propelled surface ships in the shipbuilding programs is being considered, the increased cost is the governing factor. The current progress of the nuclear propulsion program, with 13 submarines completed and 30 more authorized or under construction (Jan. 1, 1961) and the 3 surface ships now being built, has provided sufficient information to permit a usable estimate of the relative costs of the four principal elements involved, i.e., initial construction, personnel requirements, fuel consumption and upkeep, maintenance and overhaul, of similar ships with nuclear and conventional power. These have been prepared for a 20-year life of ship and have included estimates for the amortization of the cost of delivering and storing Navy standard fuel oil (NSFO) in the deployed areas. These studies indicate that the current classes of nuclear powered surface ships will cost about 1.5 times, or slightly less, as much as their conventionally powered counterparts. These are dollar comparisons and do not reflect the fact that the endurance of nuclear powered ships is many times that of the conventionally powered ships. The figure for submarines is of a similar order, but the comparison is less valid since the nuclear submarines have capabilities that the conventional submarines can never attain. The prognosis of developments for reducing these cost ratios is very encouraging. b. These factors are based on estimates, and sometimes extensive extrapolations, which are subject to considerable adjustments as further experience is gained in the submarine program, and later on with the nuclear surface ships after they have been completed and operated at sea. The uncertainties are particularly acute in the upkeep and overhaul aspects where experience is very limited due to the newness of nuclear power, and new weapons systems and electronic equipment. However, these ratios are considered sufficiently valid to be useful planning figures. c. The effect upon individual appropriations may vary somewhat from the overall factor of 1.5 for the surface ships. For example, the cost of the first cores is included in the SCN appropriation, even though this cost was removed from the SCN portion of the computations and applied to the fuel cost to pro vide a more direct comparison of life of ship fuel consumption; another is the personnel factor in which an increase of 10 to 25 percent in costs will have a direct effect on overall personnel allocations; and, third, the effect on the maintenance funds in the S. & F. appropriation, where an increase of about one-third will have a very important impact since the current allocations of funds to maintenance is marginal even for conventional ships. The increases in cost, therefore, will affect shipbuilding appropriations, personnel appropriations and maintenance and operations appropriations. 3. Weight, space, and endurance a. Nuclear propulsion plants for surface ships have been heavier and have required greater volume than the conventional plants they have replaced, neglecting the ship's endurance fuel. The inclusion of the ship's design endurance fuel makes these installations more comparable from the weight and volume basis; however, there still exists the difference of endurance. The nuclearpropelled ships currently have many times the endurance of their conventionally powered counterparts; longer life cores will increase this factor with resultant reductions in costs, and no changes to weight and volume. b. The concentrated weights and larger machinery spaces for the nuclear propulsion plants have dictated different ship arrangements and have required new consideration in ship design. Utilization of the available reactor designs placed some restrictions on the shaft horsepower of the three prototype nuclear surface ships. Matching the endurance characteristics of the reactor plants with reliable steamplant components also has caused increases in weight, space, and cost. The net result is the three prototype surface ships have a maximum speed capability somewhat less than their conventional counterparts. The maximum sustained speeds are substantially similar. c. The comparison of weights of machinery plants of conventional ships must include the fuel oil; and the amount in any ship design is a matter for decision that is determined by a suitable combination of operational performance, military characteristics, and costs. d. The combined requirements of suitable weapons systems and electronic equipments with nuclear propulsion result in the larger DLG–16 type, being the minimum size ship in which a suitable two-reactor nuclear plant can be installed within the current state of nuclear technology. The use of the single reactor plant with the same power, now under development, will reduce the cost and weight of the nuclear propulsion plant and the ships of this class. The studies of the application of nuclear power to smaller ships has generally shown that very large proportional increases in costs, size, and displacements are required to maintain a balance in the combination. e. The personnel requirements in nuclear propulsion plants at the present time are somewhat greater in numbers and require additional accommodations in chips. 4. Developments a. The progress in development of nuclear reactor cores is highly encouraging for the future. The core life has increased severalfold from the first Nautilus core, and the AEC has indicated that they are working on longer life cores. Further, the costs of these cores are decreasing at the same time core life is being extended. b. The Atomic Energy Commission has undertaken developments to design a single nuclear reactor plant of much higher horsepower than is currently available from any single naval propulsion reactor plant. This development will help reduce the cost of nuclear surface ships as a result of requiring a lesser number of reactors; and some reduction in the weight and size of the nuclear surface ships will result. 5. Provisions and supplies a. The endurance of ships also involves their capacities for food, spare parts and consumable stores, and the requirement for these is expected to remain the same for either type of propulsion system. These categories of replenishment should, in practically all kinds of employment, be made sufficiently frequent to maintain the ships in an adequate degree of readiness. The requirements for ammunition and aviation fuel are similar, but the frequency of replenishment is dependent upon the nature of the operational employment and cannot be as readily predicted. 6. Benefits to different types of ships The application to nuclear propulsion has potential advantages which can not be fully predicted until operational experience has been gained from a number of these ships. The following is a brief evaluation of some considerations regarding the application of nuclear power in frigates, cruisers, and carriers: a. Destroyers and frigates.—(1) These types now have the shortest endurance of the combat-ship types. The latter classes with longer endurance have increased considerably in size and cost to provide greater space and weight for larger weapons installations and additional fuel oil. (2) The destroyer and frigate types require more frequent refueling since their steaming distances are usually greater than the larger ships. They do not usually require as frequent replenishment of ammunition and aviation fuel, so that the NSFO requirement remains the limiting consideration under practically all conditions. (3) The requirements of the planned new equipments, such as sonars and radars, for greater amounts of electrical power will all require increased amounts of fuel to maintain their current endurance. (4) These several considerations indicate that the frigate class of destroyers will derive the greater benefit from nuclear propulsion. b. Cruisers.—(1) Cruisers already have moderate endurance, but historically cruisers have roamed over larger areas than the main task forces and are also available for independent operations so that long endurance would be an identifiable asset. The comments on impending new radar electrical power requirements in 6.a (3), above, are also applicable to cruisers. c. Carriers.-(1) The CVA's have the greatest amount of endurance and fuel, and if they are released from the need to fuel escorting ships, their endurance would be increased. In the combat areas during sustained air strike operations, the critical requirements are aviation fuel and ammunition, rather than fuel oil. (2) Nuclear propulsion does not of itself offer the same degree of improvement of capabilities in CVA, although the larger CVA(N) carries slightly more aviation fuel. However, nuclear propulsion would increase the average speeds in oversea movements when weather and sea conditions could become the limiting factors; and if the requirement for CVA to refuel escorts were eliminated, the amount of aviation fuel could be increased which would result in longer periods of sustained air operations between ship and aviation fuel replenishment. 7. Construction and overhaul facilities a. There are now two Naval shipyards (Portsmouth, N.H., and Mare Island) and five commercial yards (Electric Boat, New York Shipbuilding, Newport News Shipbuilding, Ingalls and Bethlehem-Quincy) that have facilities for constructing and overhauling nuclear-powered ships. Three additional naval shipyards (Norfolk, Charleston, and Pearl Harbor) are now scheduled to receive the facilities required for the overhaul of nuclear-powered ships. b. When the nuclear surface fieet is expanded, additional facilities for construction and overhaul may be required beyond those now existing and planned; and may involve tenders for afloat support capabilities. c. Nuclear-powered surface ships are designed to at least the same criteria for sustaining damage to the machinery spaces as conventional ships, and the reactors are located in the most protected areas of the ship. Repair of storm or collision damage would normally not be significantly more difficult than for similar damage on conventional ships. These nuclear-powered ships have those features required for safety included in their design to provide, to the maximum practicable extent, for all foreseeable contingencies which could arise from storm, collision, or battle damage. PART II. FAVORABLE ASPECTS OF NUCLEAR PROPULSION IN SURFACE SHIPS 1. Virtually unlimited high-power endurance with the following advantages: a. Elimination of the time required and the operational limitations imposed by the refueling requirement for surface ship propulsion fuel. b. Elimination of need for protecting combatant and replenishment ships during refueling and of the oilers proceeding to refueling rendezvous. c. Elimination of replenishment oilers for that portion of the fleet having nuclear power. d. Higher average speeds during transits to the area of operations. 2. The nonnuclear portions of the steam machinery plant, such as the turbines and their auxiliaries, are generally of simpler design since the requirement for high thermal efficiency is not as controlling as it is for conventional plants. Some of the nonpropulsion auxiliaries are also of simpler design. This can be expected to provide greater reliability and easier maintenance. 3. The immense reservoir of endurance in the nuclear reactor may have dis tinctly favorable potential for large ancillary power requirements in a ship, such as steam for catapults, and the very high electrical loads of new radars and sonars. 4. A stockpile of reactor cores could be created in the strategic materials program. These stockpiles of reactor cores are not a radiation hazard; they require relatively small storage areas, and new individual cores are readily transportable to locations suitable for installation. 5. There is a greater probability of orders of magnitude improvement in the new field of nuclear power than in an older source, such as fuel oil, that has been subjected to generations of developments, refinements, and improvements. The decreasing costs of nuclear cores is one significant example which could have even greater significance if the cost of fuel oil continues to increase. 6. Stack gases are eliminated with nuclear propulsion. This eliminates the corrosive effect of these gases on radar antennas and aircraft and the hazard to landing operations caused by flying through turbulent path of the exhaust gases. Elimination of stacks eases topside arrangements. 7. Nuclear power provides the potential for surface ship operation independent of the atmosphere for ABC defense. PART III, LIMITING ASPECTS 1. The increased cost factor of about 1.5 times the conventional counterparts, which has the following effects: a. The total numbers of ships procurable within any given monetary level are reduced on a 2 by 3 ratio, which, if applied to the larger numbers in a type of ships, would mean, for example, 10 for 15. The other viewpoint is to increase that portion of the SCN appropriation for nuclear propelled ships by a factor of about 1.5, which would affect other programs in a level funding climate. b. Increases the annual funds required in operations and maintenance appropriations (S. & F.), which are already marginal. This increase will either reduce the amounts for other ships or require an increased portion of the annual appropriation. c. Increases both the numbers of personnel required and the amount of training involved and consequently the costs for pay, allowances, and training. The types of personnel involved are of premium quality, which further increases the Navy's requirement for this category of personnel. d. Increases the costs involved for research and development in the nuclear propulsion field. 2. The nuclear propulsion plants as installed in the three prototype surface ships, while significantly increasing the endurance, have had the following effects: a. Increases somewhat the size of the ship for the nuclear propulsion plant, when compared with conventional surface ships having normal endurance with otherwise similar characteristics; and for the accommodations for the increased numbers of personnel. b. Reduces somewhat the top speeds, although the maximum sustained speeds are substantially similar, within the conventional ships' lesser endurance. c. The DLG-16, with suitable weapons systems and electronics equipment, is about the minimum size ship in which a suitable two-reactor nuclear plant can be installed in the present state of the technology. The application of nuclear power to smaller ships such as DE/DEG or DDG would involve disproportionate increases in costs and size to maintain a balance in the combination of military characteristics. 3. The requirements for construction and maintenance facilities ashore and afloat, and repairs to damages were noted in paragraph 7 and 8 of part 1. PART IV. CONSIDERATIONS 1. The requirements for the total number of ships in the Navy are based upon the responsibilities for multiocean operations in the national interests. The determination of the numbers of ships within the various types, carriers, cruisers, destroyers, amphbious, submarines, etc., is based upon their several functional military capabilities. These include detection systems, such as radars and sonars; the destructive capabilities of the weapons systems installed; the command and control facilities, such as communications, computers, and weapons direction systems; transportation capabilities for amphibious and underway replenishment ships; ability to influence opinion, or the deterrent capability. When provided with adequate refueling facilities, the conventionally powered surface ships of the Navy have gone where needed to carry out this multiocean responsibility. 2. There have been important degrees of improvement in weapons systems, radars, sonars, and so forth, that have increased their costs, but these improvements have extended the ranges of detection or weapons or permitted the Navy to accomplish something that could not previously be done; and, when the increased capabilities of the opposition are considered, these improvements do not reduce the requirements for the numbers of ships. 3. Similarly, nuclear propulsion is an important degree of improvement, and. like most improvements, will have an added cost, which will improve surface ship capabilities in those performance aspects affected by propulsion methods and refueling requirements. However, the improvement in propulsion and endurance aspects does not, in itself, permit the Navy to reduce the numbers of combatant ships required to meet its responsibilities. 4. The very long endurance of nuclear propulsion eliminates the need for refueling, and this begets many advantages in operational flexibility. The greatest application will probably be in that portion of the wide variety of ship employments, involving oversea movements and the independent operations of one ship or a small group of ships. The independent operations can be conducted in those areas on the seas where the usual replenishment forces are available only infrequently, for food and supplies; or for extended transits of individual ships for specialized purposes, such as intercept or search and rescue or influence missions wherein a single ship, or a small group of ships, will be sufficient. The oversea movements of forces with nuclear propulsion could be made at higher average speeds and the weather might well become the limiting factor. This ability to move some forces rapidly has a highly useful military potential in those situations where long movements may be involved and an early show of force by a selected number of ships may have distinct advantages. 5. The Navy intends to enlarge its future nuclear surface ship program in a manner that is consistent with its other requirements. The Secretary of Defense has expressed support for the Navy's intention to work toward a nuclearpowered Navy. The number of nuclear-powered surface ships that can be built under the present conditions of cost will be moderate. When the developments have progressed further so that these factors are reduced, the rate can be accelerated, for the potential advantages of nuclear propulsion are well recognized. APPENDIX 2 THE SECRETARY OF THE NAVY, Memorandum for Deputy Secretary of Defense. Reference: (a) SecNav memo for DepSecDef of March 8, 1962. 1. In your memorandum of February 27, 1962, you requested more complete information on the Navy's nuclear propulsion program including historical data, status, and predictions for the future with particular emphasis on low weight and compact plants. 2. Reference (a) was forwarded as an interim reply to your memorandum. As noted, the enclosure to reference (a) presented a great deal of pertinent information on this subject. 26-152-64- ——14 |