are universally distributed throughout Nature, and that no one element is peculiar to organized matter. The characteristic of organized bodies is therefore not to be found in any peculiarity of the matter of which they are composed, but in the manner in which the atoms composing that matter are grouped. In an inorganic body we are accustomed to attribute its chemical properties to the nature, number, and mode of association of its constituent elements, while its physical properties are attributable to the mode of arrangement of its molecules.

Analysis of organized bodies shows that in them we have certain elements constantly present in certain definite proportions; it is therefore warrantable to assume that the chemical properties of organized bodies are, as in the case of inorganic matter, due to the number, nature, and mode of association of their elements. Further, we find in all organized living bodies a certain identity of physical properties; it is, therefore, warrantable to assume that the physical processes seen in organized bodies are dependent on the mode of arrangement of their constituent molecules. The elements constantly associated in living matter are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sulphur, forming a complex combination, to which the term protoplasm has been applied. This matter, protoplasm, whether found in the tissues of the highest animals or plants, or in the lowest, unicellular members of either kingdom, has always the same composition and is always possessed of nearly the same attributes; with

the restriction that we have already referred to, as to the difference in functions possessed by animals and plants,-differences which will probably in the future be cleared up, and found not to be in contradiction to the statement that protoplasm is the universal basis of organization.

B

FIG. 3.-A NON-NUCLEATED CELL, THE
PROTAMOEBA PRIMITIVA. (AFTER
HAECKEL.)

All organized bodies are built up of associations of masses of protoplasm, which from their appearance are termed cells, or, from the functions which they fulfill, elementary organisms; and as the physical properties of inorganic matter are dependent on the arrangement of their molecules, so the physiological peculiarities of organized bodies are dependent on their cellular structure.

A, original condition; B. commencement of repro duction by fission; C, after complete separation.

Physiology is, therefore, the study of the properties of cells. Cells possess the properties of Nutrition, Reproduction, Growth, Development, and in many cases their contents are capable of Motion and manifesting Irritability.

Microscopic examination teaches that every living object, from man down to the smallest animalcule invisible to the naked eye, from the largest tree down to the most microscopic plant, is built up on the same general plan. In each the same element of organization is found, and every living form is built up of associations of these microscopic units, each of which, even in the most complex forms of life may be regarded as separate individual organisms.

The best known of such undifferentiated forms of cell-life is the amceba, one of the simplest examples of an animal organism.

In its lowest form the amoeba (Protamoba primitiva, Haeckel) consists of a mass of jelly-like, structureless, albuminoid substance (protoplasm), which, so far as its chemical composition and general attributes are con

cerned, cannot be distinguished from the contents of all active forms of cells. (See Fig. 3.) The amoeba is capable of spontaneous motion, both as regards change of external form and of progressing from place to place. Motions may also be evoked by various stimuli; hence free protoplasm, in common with muscular fibre and ciliated organisms, is contractile.

The peculiarity of protoplasmic motion as seen in the amoeba is that motion does not occur around a fixed point, but rather is a flowing motion, such as might occur in the particles of a fluid. Thus, in an amoeba the changes in form and location are effected through the thrusting out of lobelike prolongations of the periphery (pseudopodia) and their subsequent withdrawal or the flowing into these extensions of the remainder of the body.

Occasionally one or more of these pseudopodia become gradually more and more constricted, until finally a portion becomes entirely separated from the original mass, increases in size, and itself possesses all the properties of the parent stock; hence protoplasm is reproductive, and possesses the power of growth. Moreover, the movements of an amoeba are not necessarily the consequences of external stimuli, but may be self-originating; hence protoplasm is also automatic. If watched for some time an amœba will often be seen to take into its interior by flowing around them small vegetable organisms, of which portions are dissolved and converted into the substance of its body, while the undigested remainder is extruded; therefore, protoplasm, even in the absence of all digestive organs, possesses the power of nutrition. The amoeba requires for its existence an atmosphere of oxygen, which is absorbed, and which it again partly exhales as carbon dioxide. Protoplasm is, therefore, respiratory.*

The above clear and explicit statement of cell-powers shows that the common basis of mind-organization is present in the simplest forms of organized life. In this phase of existence the animal appears to be stomach all over; formless, yet possessing all the possibilities of form; unorganized, yet exhibiting all the attributes of organization, viz., capacity for motion, reproduction, growth, secretion, excretion, respiration, and digestion. In this stage it seems to be a chemical compound, merely; the rudimentary stage of all organic life is mainly chemical, yet possessing as we have seen all the "potencies and possibilities" of architectural and mathematical development. The primitive germ of the human embryon is nothing more at its inception than a minute mass of non-nucleated protoplasm, yet possesses all the properties of mind which in its developed state may exhibit the transcendent genius of an Humboldt or a Newton. It is hence important that we should study the primitive origin of man, in order that we may comprehend the physical basis of his mind. It is to further this purpose that I have introduced the preceding description of the Amoeba.†

# Physiology of the Domestic Animals, Robert Meade Smith, pp. 11-14. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis. A study of embryology or of the evolution of man would be most advantageous to the student who desires a thorough knowledge of this most interesting phase of mental development. My limits forbid further elaboration here.-THE AUTHOR.

The lowest animal organisms exist in and upon watery or fluid nutriment; and man in his embryonic state, while he is developing from his protoplasmic condition, as well as for months after his birth, lives upon fluid nutriment.

The native Australian is a fair sample of this stage of evolution. Of course, the germs of all the five systems are present in the lowest types of man, but in this stage of development they lack both size and quality, and are not perfected as in perfected races. The other systems of functions, and many faculties now seen in combination with the vegetative, have been very largely perfected since, particularly the brain and nerve system, which is

FIG. 4.-NATIVE AUSTRALIANS. (AFTER D'URVILLE.)
Showing absence of muscular tissue.

now in a more active state than ever before in the world's history. From being a stomach race we are becoming a brain race. What evolution will do for us in the ages to come it is difficult to predict. The law of pregress is always from the lower to the higher, and surely we can say of human nature that it has need of higher growth or a higher development in quality.

The next class of animals above the Amoeba is that of the Infusoria, also of microscopic proportions. Above these we find the Polyp (Fig. 5), a soft, round-bodied animal, that seems to be merely a gelatinous mass, yet with quite a distinct digestive apparatus in the form of a tube. These creatures multiply by what is termed gemmation or budding. They respire through the skin;

they have no blood-vessel system, but are supplied with a nourishing fluid analogous to the blood of higher animals.

From this stage of animal life until we reach Amphibia, a class of animals which are capable of living both in water and on land, we find no true lung or perfected breathing apparatus. To be able to inhale air is the next great step in progressive development of animal powers, and in Amphibia we observe a development of both lung and heart power. The next stage of development is shown by an increase of the muscular system. This increased power is necessitated by a life on land, as the amphibious animals seek their food on land as well as in the water; hence, they require more muscular power to enable them

to gain a livelihood in both realms.

A life in the open air under the direct rays of the sun causes the bony structure to become perfected. A life in the water exclusively gives to the bony structure a cartilaginous or soft condition. We find in the human and animal races that those classes that have led an outdoor life for generations, as, for example, farmers, laborers, etc., have the best-developed bony structure. The animals and birds that skulk and come out mainly at night have not so good a bony system as those that live in the open air exposed to the sun. Compare the tiger, the coon, the opossum, the polecat, and skunk, with the sheep, the goat, and dog, the owl with the sparrow-hawk, etc., and we shall have a very good idea of what the sun can do in developing and perfecting a bony structure.

FIG. 5.-A POLYP. (MUCH EN-
LARGED.)

A simple animal organism.

In the plan of progressive development in the lower animals we find that the order observed is as we have indicated: First, the vegetative functions, or the ability to eat, drink, respire, secrete, reproduce, and grow; the next step is to breathe; the next is the development of the muscular system, then that of the osseous or bony system; later on, as we advance above the fish family, we find a beginning of a true brain system. Not until we arrive at the order Mammalia do we find a perfected brain and nervous system, represented first in the several races of animals, both wild and domestic. This is the order which Nature unfolds, whether we look for it in her manifestations through the long ages of pro

gressive development from the simple Amoeba up through fish, reptile, bird, and beast, to man, or whether we trace it through the embryonic life of the human being and find it written on man's face, which is the register, if we read it scientifically, of all these changes and growths. The order above described I shall follow in my exposition of the five systems of functions.

THE VEGETATIVE SYSTEM.

We observe the signs for the action of the vegetative functions in the lower part of the face mainly, the signs for the development of the animal or motive functions and faculties in the

middle range, and the highest por-
tion of the physiognomy discloses
the intuitional and the reasoning
powers.
Man's face is truly a

FIG. 6.-VEGETATIVE INFANT.

microcosm, or miniature world. How wonderful! How beautiful! How divine! It seems to me that religion can go no farther than to know the human face scientifically, and then to use this knowledge for race-improvement by intelligent and scientific methods.

If the theory of the evolution of man had never been promul gated, the human face read scientifically would have necessitated its promulgation, for the face of man proves the order of his development, and the course of embryonic life corroborates the methods which have governed the gradual unfolding of all animal organisms, from the lowest to the highest. In the highest animal organization in the world, the first few years of life are passed with