combativeness or resistance which proceeds from muscular development merely. Executiveness, shown by height of the nose, lends to the character the ability to combat argument and opinions. Every faculty has its own peculiar force and mode of expressing power. These different methods of showing force must be analyzed by the reader, else confusion will ensue, and motives will not be comprehended fully. The only method by which we can analyze a trait is to observe the action of the mechanism through which it makes itself manifest. Now, as the muscular system is the main instrument by means of which Resistance is shown, it follows that we must look to this system and its development for knowledge on this point. Roundness or curving, as elsewhere explained, always indicates the predominance of the muscular system; hence it is that when we find the nose thick its entire length, as is often observed in belligerent characters, we know that the muscular system of the entire body is well developed,so significant are minute facial indications.

Not only does fullness of the nose prove the presence of muscle, but it discloses the fact that the large

FIG. 59.-GROVER CLEVELAND. (STATESMAN,
GOVERNOR, AND PRESIDENT.)

Conspicuous facial and bodily sign, Resistance, shown by a large nose, wide nostrils, width of jaws, thick neck, large muscular development; broad square shoulders; broad and deep chest. The law of the straight line and square governs this physiognomy, This gentleman's face reveals great determination, and Courage of all sorts, mental, moral, and physical. The vegetative system gives great strength of constitution; while the mental qualities are of a high order. The signs for Human Nature, Analysis, Constructiveness, Acquisitiveness, Veneration, Executiveness, and Self-will are very marked. The sense of Order, Time, Memory of Events, and Reason are large; while the faculties of Conscientiousness, Firmness, Economy, Love of Home, Patriotism, Amativeness, Love of Young, Self-esteem, and Friendship are most decided. A character that would be able to meet and withstand great crises.

viscera, the heart, lungs, and stomach (all muscular or fibroid organs), are large and vigorous. The heart and stomach are hollow muscles, the heart being capable of more work than any other muscle of the body. The rounding out of the head above, the ears is another sign of muscular power, and this rounding form of the head is one reason why the ears of courageous men and animals stand so far out. And, again, large projecting ears are signs of muscular power, as they are composed mainly of muscle and cartilage.

The short, round, thick neck, another sign of Resistance, is

evidence of muscular formation, for muscle tends to shorten limbs and features, and this member is greatly relied upon both by man and animals in combating and resisting. The action of the muscles of the neck and chest proves this.

The ram, the stag, and bull, all courageous and ferocious creatures, make use of the head for butting, and in this exercise the neck is contracted when about to spring upon their opponent. Butting is not confined to animals. The Southern negro uses this method in his endeavors to resist his antagonist, and men calling themselves civilized sometimes use this method of fighting.

Compressing the mouth and closing the teeth while engaged in active operations, whether peaceable or otherwise, facilitates the tension of the muscles concerned, as well as the action of the heart and lungs, for, says Dr. Cross:

It may be proper to remark that all the dangerous passions produce and are expressed by violent expiration, while the emotions of fear are expressed by long inspiration.

In preparation for the immediate performance of any weighty enterprise we draw in a full breath, and by shutting the glottis hold it in. The glottis then serves a most important part in the performance of any mighty enterprise by enabling us for a time to dispense with the motion of respira tion by converting the whole chest from a hollow to a solid structure-by giving a mechanical advantage to some of the principal muscles of the arm, and by directly increasing the vitality. All this assistance the larynx affords toward any fair and noble undertaking, but where the angry and offensive passions have a place in the undertaking, then the delicate musical larynx, being unable to sympathize, throws wide the glottis, and allows the ebullition of passion to get vent, and the energy, dangerous from such a prompter, to get exhaustion in violent expirations. It is not because the angry man is so rapid and violent in his exertions that he is so frequently overcome by his cooler antagonist, but because the energy is soon exhausted by the violent expirations of rage.*

Those whose Resistance takes the form of Combativeness or Contrariness shake the head from side to side, or forward or backward, when in earnest conversation. They also step heavily and with force, close doors with a bang, set down articles with empha sis, drop or throw down their boots and shoes in a noisy manner. If a door or anything else resists their immediate efforts to move it they apply force directly, never stopping to observe the situation, and note if ingenuity may not accomplish the desired purpose without resort to force.

In argument they take the opposite side spontaneously, and will argue against the plans intended for their own welfare, seemingly because they cannot help it. One person told me that she always felt like opposing anything which I proposed for her good,

152, 158.

An Attempt to Establish Physiognomy on Scientific Principles, John Cross, M.D., FP

yet, after considering it, and being perfectly convinced that it was for her highest good, she would often adopt ideas and plans which she had instantaneously combated. She said, when questioned as to her reason for doing so, that "she just felt contrary without any reason for it."

The impulse to "pull back" seems to be ever present in these characters, and this is yet another proof of the muscular origin of Resistance, for no other part of the organism has the contrariety of motion that characterizes the muscles which move backward and forward upon the bones to which they are attached, and which also permit as much freedom of action in one direction as in another. All persons endowed with a good muscular system are not always contrary, for other faculties come in to modify this trait, but muscular people having the best apparatus for the expression of contrariness display it more generally than those with the bony system predominant. A good illustration of this difference in the two classes of persons is found by comparison of those animals in which the same differences of structure are observable. The carnivorous class, those in whom the muscles predominate over the bones, present the same contrary, changeable, fickle disposition which is characteristic of muscular people. The lion, the tiger, the lynx, the cat, and all other animals of this formation, are given to contrariety and shift and change about with great rapidity, and they are less capable of being trained than the bony animals. This causes Contrariness, yet does not produce Obstinacy. This is the property of those possessed of excess of bone, as seen in the bull-dog and ass. Yet the horse, the dog, the camel, and elephant, possessing relatively more bone than muscle, are less contrary, more reliable in regard to stability of purpose, more tractable, docile, and teachable.

There are, of course, great differences existing in the several breeds of the same animals. Particularly is this the case in the dog tribes, the greyhound, poodle, and terrier presenting quite different appearances of structure than the St. Bernard, the bulldog, and mastiff. The latter, although exhibiting a formidable and dangerous appearance, is tractable, gentle, and, unless his master or his master's property is attacked, remains good-natured. Like men endowed with great strength, he is not quarrelsome or given to use his powers unnecessarily, either by barking or attacking strangers, while smaller dogs of less strength and courage will bark and yelp, and by their noisy demonstration endeavor, like human braggarts, to gain a character for courage by simple noise, when they have neither the spirit nor strength to overcome an antagonist. There is a deal of human nature in dogs, and we

can all pick out the different types of our human friends among

them.

Mental resistance is not so marked in its manifestations as is physical resistance. It seems more adapted to overcome obstacles and assist the individual in hewing his way to success, whether it be in the political arena, in the conflict of opinion in debate, in the determination and force necessary to the orator and actor in delineating forcible characters, or in promoting those great reforms which at their inception always meet with immense opposition, and which must be opposed with tremendous moral force and intellectual courage in order to insure their success.

One of the most noticeable features in the faces of the great dramatic orators and actors is the curved lower jaw, or, as I choose to designate it, the "dramatic jaw." The curving of the jaw is produced by the curving of the muscle, which causes the relatively smaller bone to curve with it, and curving of the muscles indicates not only constitutional vigor but also creative powers. Curving of any portion of the features of the face denotes superior constitutional vigor, hence the power to resist disease as well as circumstances, enemies, climate, etc., is indicated by this formation. Dr. Redfield, in his system of physiognomy, very justly terms the high, curved nose the "aggressive" nose, but he fails to give its philosophy, or to show that such a nose is associated with a power ful visceral structure like that of the carnivorous animals, which are particularly aggressive. Their noses are broad, nostrils wide, and their muscular systems predominant. In discerning and analyzing the signs of character we are very much indebted to the animal kingdom for our knowledge, for by comparison with their forms, colors, and qualities we are able to verify much in the human family which would be otherwise obscure. Cuvier observed that "the bodies of animals are experiments ready prepared by Nature for man," while Dr. Cross remarks on this subject that "the lower animals, taken as a whole, constitute a rough field of physiog nomical inquiry calculated to promote the science in its more refined and dignified application to the human race."*

Large, prominent teeth indicate the spirit of opposition. The same appearance in animals denotes like characteristics, while horns, tusks, and tushes are tokens of its excess, and announce ferocity, cruelty, and brutality, as is witnessed in the behavior of the rhinoceros, the rhinaster, the wild boar, the buck, and the stag.

One phase of mental resistance is shown in debate by caus tic, acrimonious, and sarcastic language, and by the expression of impassioned, vehement, and denunciatory sentiments.

* An Attempt to Establish Physiognomy on Scientific Principles, John Cross, M.D., p. IL

When one is wanting in Resistance he is tame, mild, and conciliatory in speech; he relies upon this tone to win and convince. The most morally-inclined persons with small Resistance will not defend their beliefs with any degree of power, preferring to be thought cowardly rather than take a bold stand for principle. Such individuals are often charged with deceit, treachery, and want of truth because unable to stand up and speak out decidedly at the right time. This class are wholly incapable of defending friends and children, preferring rather to shield them and keep them out of danger than to battle for their rights in any way.

Cursing, swearing, and threatening are vulgar forms of its excess. Uncivilized races generally exhibit many of the signs of physical résistance. In these races savagery and brutality are indicated (as in the most brutal beasts) by a thick, coarse skin; coarse, thick hair, and dull eyes. The bear and wild boar are illustrations of this grade. The eyes of a celebrated lion-tamer, attached to a menagerie which I attended, were dull and brutal in expression. When I questioned him as to the capacity of savage beasts to yield to the power of love or kindness, he replied: "They only understand a good beating and respect nothing but superior force." I think this is also true of brutal people.

Tusks and tushes in animals are signs of savage resistance and belligerency, and are never observed in the mouths of the most noble and peaceable animals. Whenever a tusk is exhibited in a human mouth it is indicative of lack of feeling or some form of cruelty or malignancy in the disposition. Fortunately, such appearances are rare in the human family.

SECRETIVENESS.

Definition.-Reserve, reticence, policy, concealment, evasion, and watchfulness. It creates a scheming and managing disposition, often on a very small scale.

An excess tends to slyness, selfishness, cunning, deceit, suspicion, falsehood, treachery, craft, and artfulness.

A deficiency creates artlessness, want of tact, imprudence and indiscretion in speech, and too much frankness in the discussion of one's affairs.

Facial and Bodily Signs.-Compressed and thin lips; small mouth; half-closed, peeping eyes; very small eyes; shy and sly glances out of the corners of the eyes; furtive, stealthy looks, and long lashes, all indicate different degrees of Secretiveness. Broad, flat nostrils are a sign of secrecy common to negroes and many undeveloped races and certain carnivorous animals. A very subdued tone of voice and a mumbling, indistinct utterance characterize