An authorized interpretation of Bergson by the well-known radical Edouard LeRoy has been translated and published under the title, A New Philosophy: Henri Bergson. An authorized translation of the Introduction to Metaphysics makes virtually all of Bergson's works available in English. The best critical articles on his philosophy are those written by A. O. Lovejoy under the title "The Practical Tendencies of Bergsonism" (Int. Jour. of Ethics, April and July. 1913). The first of these articles is a critique of Bergson's anti-intellectualism, and the second an interesting discussion of the relations between Bergsonism and the syndicalist philos ophy as represented by M. Sorel. George Santayana's "Philosophy of Henri Bergson" (in his Winds of Doctrine) is remarkable for the felicity and acuteness of its characterization. F. Thilly's presidential address, "Romanticism and Rationalism," before the American Philosophical Association in December, 1912, and since published in the Philosophical Review (March, 1913) was largely devoted to a very telling arraignment of Bergson as a romanticist.

The most important constructive statement of the realistic position that

tained in the articles of the English philosopher S. Alexander, entitled "Collective Willing and Truth" (Mind, Jan. and April, 1913). He defines truth as coherent social belief, as goodness is coherence of wills in society. The second article contains an interesting discussion of the relation between truth and beauty. The articles are significant of the extent to which a large admixture of pragmatism is consistent with realistic first principles. W. T. Marvin, in his First Book in Metaphysics, has presented the American new realism in concise textbook form. F. J. E. Woodbridge, in his article "The Deception of the Senses" (Jour. of Philos., Jan. 2, 1913), has contributed to the realistic theory of perception. G. Fullerton, in his articles on "Percept and Object in Common Sense and in Philosophy" (ibid., Jan. 30 and March 13, 1913), has appealed to common sense in support of a realistic view. W. B. Pitkin ("Time and the Percept," ibid., June 5, 1913) has attempted upon realistic grounds to explain the principal difficulties that arise in connection with the relation of real and perceptual time. These articles illustrate a tendency among realists to concentrate attention upon the problem of perception. The German realist O. Külpe, well known to English readers through his earlier books and articles, has recently published a systematic defense of realism under the title Die Realisierung, which is notable for being one of the few signs of an interest in this point of view in the native land of idealism. In English-speaking countries realism is at

present the favorite object of philosophical polemics, proving that it has at least succeeded in getting a hearing. Among the articles of this class that have appeared in American periodicals, the following are deserving of special mention: J. W. Scott, "Idealism as Tautology or Paradox" (Philos. Rev., Sept., 1913), a defense of idealism in which the justice of much of the realistic criticism is admitted; A. O. Lovejoy, "Error and the New Realism" (ibid., July, 1913), and "On Some Novelties of the New Realism" (Jour. of Philos., Jan. 16, 1913), criticisms of realism with especial reference to the problems of perception; M. R. Cohen, "The New Realism" (ibid., April 10, 1913), a very acute paper written in a spirit of fundamental agreement; G. A. Tawney, "Methodological Realism," and G. P. Adams, "Mind as Form and as Activity" (Philos. Rev., May, 1913), the latter a defense of the idealistic view of mind as incapable of being known as an object. In England the most notable reply of idealism to its realistic critics was the Adamson Lecture for 1913, on "The Distinction between Mind and its Object," a criticism of the position of S. Alexander and of the American group of realists by B. Bosanquet, at present the leading mind of the idealistic party. G. Santayana's notable book Winds of Doctrine contains an elaborate and brilliantly written criticism of the realism of B. Russell, with special reference to the conception of good. Among replies of realists to their critics, one should mention the articles of W. B. Pitkin and R. B. Perry (Jour. of Philos.).

gued for the one, it may equally well be argued for the other. L. T. Hobhouse's Development and Purpose, although written by a philosopher, is naturalistic in its sympathies, and opposed to the traditional idealism. All the more remarkable, therefore, is the author's conclusion that the course of nature can be explained only by the assumption of a necessary progress, determined by mind.

Ethics.-The most noteworthy event in this field in America is the selection of the following subject for the next annual meeting of the American Philosophical Association: "The Problem of the Relation of Existence and Value, including their relation both as facts and as concepts, and also the Relation of a Theory of Existence to a Theory of Value." discussion of this problem promises to give a new turn to the idealisticrealistic controversy, as the crucial issues involved in that controversy all find an application here. At the same time the selection of this topic indicates a growing recognition in America of the independent (general) importance of a theory of value.

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The past year has also witnessed the organization of a permanent association to be called the Conference on Legal and Social Philosophy. The first meeting of this Conference was held in New York in April, with "The Relation of Law to Social Ends" as the topic of discussion. Among the papers presented, some of which have since been published, were the following: "The Philosophy of Law," by Roscoe Pound; "The Relation between Legal and Political Theory," by W. W. Willoughby; "The Conception of Social Welfare," by Felix Adler; "The Content of Social Justice," by S. N. Patten, and "The Process of Judicial Legislation," by M. R. Cohen. The Conference arose from the need felt, and formally recorded by the Association of American Law Schools, for a conscious philosophy of law. Informal inquiry disclosed a similar interest on the part of moral and social philosophers, and this new organization promises to bring about a stimulating and mutually helpful contact between these two groups of thinkers. Other important articles significant of the same

Several books stand apart from these more prominent controversial topics, but may well prove in the end to be of more substantial importance. L. J. Henderson's The Fitness of the Environment is described by its sub-title as "An Inquiry into the Biological Significance of the Properties of Matter." It is the work of a chemist who happens to possess both acquaintance with philosophical issues and the capacity to employ his scientific competence with reference to them. The thesis of this book is that the environment is adapted to life, and that if The principle of teleology is to be ar

tendency are M. R. Cohen's "Jurisprudence as a Philosophical Discipline" (Jour. of Philos., April 24, 1913), and H. A. Overstreet's "Philosophy and our Legal Situation" (ibid., Feb. 27, 1913).

The question of the teaching of ethics in colleges has received considerable attention during the year. The subject had been one of the topics for discussion at the 1912 meeting of the Western Philosophical Association, and a paper contributed to that discussion, "The Essentials of a First Course in Ethics," by G. D. Walcott, appeared in the Journal of Philosophy at the opening of the year. More recently G. C. Cox has published in the same Journal (June 19, 1913) an article entitled "The Case Method in the Study and Teaching of Ethics," in which the author has described his attempt to use in the teaching of ethics the "case method" of teaching law, for some time successfully employed in the Harvard Law School. The student collects and examines the actual decisions which authorities acting for society have delivered on moral questions. Those who have criticized this plan, for example, H. A. Overstreet and T. R. Powell (in Jour. of Philos.. Aug. 14 and 28), have acknowledged its suggestiveness and the ethical importance of the material contained in legal literature.

The only important book of the year in this field is G. E. Moore's Ethics (Holt). Although published in the Home University Library, this book is by no means a mere popular hand-book on the subject. It is a restatement in a more straightforward and effective way of the author's peculiar views, already set forth in his Principia Ethica. It is an extremely original defense of the thesis that rightness consists in the causing of an objective, intrinsic good, that is indefinable and independent of pleas ure or desire. The defect of the book lies in the author's tendency tediously to elaborate points which, while orig inal and more often than not true, are nevertheless obvious and sometimes even trivial.

Philosophy of Religion.-A number of important books in this field by both American and English writers have appeared. George Santayana's

Winds of Doctrine contains an important discussion of "Modernism and Christianity," in which the author takes the position that Modernism is not Christianity; in other words, that Christianity consists essentially in the orthodox faith. The author writes not as an advocate of orthodoxy, but rather as a critic of liberalism on the ground that it is an attempt to retain the name without the substance of historical Christianity. Opposed to this view is a volume entitled Foundations: A Statement of Christian Belief in Terms of Modern Thought, by seven Oxford men. The book is an attempt to elaborate an interpretation of Christianity that shall be in agreement with the more advanced theories of theological, philosophical and Biblical criticism, and yet be inspired with a positive religious spirit.

Three important books have арpeared that deal with religious problems from the standpoint and by the method of philosophy. All three writers are idealistic in their fundamental positions. Watson's Interpretation of Religious Experience is interesting for its criticism of recent tendencies, such as realism. Bosanquet's Value and Destiny of the_Individual, comprising the Gifford Lectures given at Edinburgh in 1912, is the sequel to the author's volume on Individuality and Value. The fundamental principles advanced in the earlier book are here applied to the genesis and relations of the individual. Especially notable are the discussion of the relation of mind and body, and the author's distinction between God and the Absolute, the former belonging to the world of appearance, the latter being the ultimate reality. Royce's Problem of Christianity contains the lectures delivered before the Lowell Institute in Boston, and afterwards at Manchester College, Oxford, on the Hibbert Foundation. These lectures are an application of the author's "philosophy of loyalty" to the doctrines of Christianity. The religious experience is interpreted as essentially social. central teachings of Christianity are, according to the author, the universal spiritual brotherhood and the salvation of the otherwise lost individual through loyalty to this brotherhood.

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