BIBLIOGRAPHY CHAPIN, F. S.-Social Evolution. (New York, Century Co., 1913.)-A small book adapted for use as a college text in ethnic social origins. John M. Gillette has discussed this | Koss appeared in the Popular Science process in an article, "Sociology as Monthly for July. High School Subject" (Educational Review, XLV, March, 1913). The second development is the introduction of sociology into the curriculum of even the more conservative theological seminaries. A social, and, in some cases, a sociological point of view, is more and more required by the various churches from all of their candidates for the ministry, and a new social catechism, based on the inductions of sociology, is rapidly being formulated. It is worthy of note that Josef Schumpeter, of the University of Gratz, is the first Austrian sociologist to deliver a course of lectures in this country. Professor Schumpeter lectures during the season of 1913-14 at Columbia University on the "Problem of Social Classes." Discussing first the origin and nature of social classes, his course deals with the psychical superstructure of the fact of class distinction and with its various political and social aspects. a Necrology. - Sociology suffered very real loss in the death of Lester Frank Ward on April 18. Tributes to him, the first president of the American Sociological Society, appear in the July number of the Journal of that Society. An appreciation by E. A. CLEVELAND, F. A.-Organized Democ- KAUFMANN, Al.-Theorie und Methoden as a source book of sociological data and as a discussion of practical statistical methods. WILSON, W. H.-The Evolution of the ECONOMICS Tariff and Income Tax.-Any attempt to summarize in a few pages the economic work of the year must necessarily be fragmentary and reflect more or less the point of view of the author. In a small book, published early in the year (The Economic Utilization of History, Yale University Press), the present writer expressed the opinion that history might well be considered by the economist as a series of experiments, the detailed study of which would well reward his efforts. To those who take this view, one of the most important economic events of the year was the adoption by Congress of the new tariff and of its twin brother, the income tax (see also I, American History: and XIV, Public Finance). The tariff law is interesting to the economist, because it may be fairly said to have resulted in part at least from the teachings of economists during the past 40 years or more. Ever since the days of Arthur Latham Perry, William Graham Sumner, and David A. Wells, economists as a class, whether or not they have embraced the extreme doctrines of free trade, have stood for a material reduction in our tariff. Few have advocated the theory of protection, and still fewer, if any, have been willing to defend the extremely high rates which, in spite of platform promises, Congress seemed unwilling to reduce. At last the Republican party hit upon a theory which, while maintaining intact the doctrine of protection, opened the way for a re duction in rates. This was the doc- | inductive study of economics, but the trine of a "scientific tariff," based book itself is the result of the appliupon the carefully ascertained differ- cation of the inductive method, since, ence between the cost of production in the selection of the material, the in the United States and abroad. Its editors have been guided by actual realization was entrusted to President class-room experience. Taft's Tariff Commission. The valuable and extensive statistical material gathered by this Commission was not utilized by the Sixty-second Congress, but the Democratic majority of the Sixty-third, though they opposed the Commission, were nevertheless willing to profit by its work. Thus, under the theory of the "competitive tariff," so adjusted as to give the consumer the benefit of foreign competition, they applied a doctrine not so very different from the Republican theory of "scientific tariff." The result has been, not a tariff for revenue only, but yet substantial reductions in the more important schedules, particularly textiles and metals, and such important additions to the free list as wool, sugar, steel rails, and lumber. The new law thus marks a turning point in our tariff history, and a careful observation of its effect on prices, on domestic industries and on foreign trade should yield valuable results to the economist. General Works. American economists have published comparatively little during the past year in the way of pure theory or general treatises. Prof. Henry R. Seager has, however, issued a fourth edition, revised and enlarged, of his Principles of Economics, originally published in 1904 (Holt). In this edition especial attention is given to the subjects of social insurance, socialism, etc., which have been growing in public interest within the last ten years. An interesting novelty in the line of economic teaching is presented in the book is sued by Leon C. Marshall, Chester W. Wright, and James A. Field, three members of the economic faculty of the University of Chicago, under the title Materials for the Study of Elementary Economics (University of Chicago Press). This book contains a collection of extracts from standard works, presenting "not so much authoritative formulations of economic laws as concrete cases of material embodying such laws." Not only is this collection calculated to stimulate the Immigration. The general interest in the problems arising in connection with our foreign population is seen in the 41 volumes of the Immigration Commission, abstracts of which appeared some time ago, as well as in the publication of several books, such as Frederick J. Haskin's The Immigrant (Revell), Frank J. Warne's The Immigrant Invasion, and Henry Pratt Fairchild's Immigration. Though the title of Professor Fairchild's book is general, and though it contains in its introductory part a survey of the world causes which lead to immigration, it deals mainly with the United States, surveying the history of immigration and of legislation regarding it, and discussing the more important questions which arise in connection with it. Labor.-Among books dealing with labor problems mention may be made of Miss Mary Van Kleeck's Women in the Bookbinding Trade (New York, Survey Associates), and Theodore W. Glocker's Government of American Trade Unions (Johns Hopkins Press). James H. Boyd's elaborate treatise in two volumes on the laws of compensation for workmen (Bobbs-Merrill), though not written especially from the point of view of an economist, contains a full account of our state legislation down to the time of publication. Unfortunately for the publishers, the activity of our legislatures prevents all books of this kind from remaining for any considerable time up to date. During the past year the number of states having some form of indemnity for accidents has increased from 16 to 22, and anyone who would keep himself posted on this and kindred topics must go to such publications as the Review of Labor Legislation, published quarterly by the American Association for Labor Legislation, or the Survey, published weekly. Business Cycles and the Currency. -An excellent example of the inductive method is seen in Prof. Wesley C. Mitchell's large quarto volume on virtually a dollar of varying weight but fixed purchasing power. He has published numerous articles on this subject, one of the most recent of which appeared in the September number of the Report of the International Institute of Statistics. In coöperation with a number of other economists, in the United States and abroad, he is trying to bring about an international conference on the high cost of living. Public Finance. The student of taxation will welcome the eighth edition of Prof. Edwin R. A. Seligman's Essays on Taxation (Macmillan). This authoritative book, which began with 13 chapters, has now grown to a volume of 21 chapters and has almost doubled in size. Frederick A. Wood's Finances of Vermont (Longmans) is one of a series of studies of Business Cycles (University of California Press). The rhythmical nature of modern business has long been familiar to economists and many theories have been propounded to account for it. The distinguishing feature of Professor Mitchell's work is that by studying intensively a limited time (for the book only deals with the period since 1890) but a large area, the author marshals a vast amount of statistical material to show why each phase of the cycle, prosperitydepression-crisis-prosperity, inevitably "breeds" its successor. While this rhythm seems to be universal, it differs much in severity according to the country. In the United States the crisis degenerates into a panic much more readily than in England, France, or Germany. This, according to Professor Mitchell, is due to differences in banking organization and prac-state finances prepared under the imtices. Hence great interest attaches to the proposition to reform our banking and currency system. A notable contribution to this topic has been made by former Representative Charles N. Fowler, who has specialized on this subject for years, and whose legislative activity on behalf of banking reform is well known, in Seventeen Talks on the Banking Question (Elizabeth, N. J., Financial Reform Publishing Co.). A cognate subject is treated by Professor James E. Hagerty in his Mercantile Credit (Holt). This is an intensive study of one of the many forms of modern credit, preceded by a short sketch of the history of credit in general, and followed by a study of bankruptcy legislation in the United States. mediate direction of Prof. Henry B. Gardner for the Carnegie Institution of Washington, as is also W. C. Fankhauser's Financial History of California (University of California Publications in Economics, Vol. 8). Corporations.-Dr. S. J. Buck's Granger Movement (Harvard University Press), though it covers but a single decade of history, deals with efforts to fix minimum rates for railroads which have had far-reaching consequences. At the time of its enactment the "granger legislation" produced comparatively little effect, and was considered to be worse than futile by many economists, but it has nevertheless established the principle of the right of the state to regulate a business which is public in its nature. A more general discussion of the imThe Cost of Living. The subject portant economic railroad problems of the currency is intimately con- of the day will be found in Dr. A. M. nected with prices, wages, and the Sakolski's American Railroad Ecocost of living. Indeed, according to nomics (Macmillan). Prof. Lewis Prof. Irving Fisher, whose Purchasing H. Haney's Business Organization Power of Money, originally issued in and Combination (Macmillan) is, in 1911, has recently appeared in a the main, a description of the varisecond and revised edition (Macmil-ous types of business organization exlan), the changes in the volume and rapidity of circulation of money are the most important elements in price changes. Professor Fisher has devised an ingenious plan for stabilizing our measure of value by substituting for a dollar of fixed weight, but varying purchasing power, what would be isting in the United States with particular attention to the corporation. This the author would retain, but make more useful by requiring greater publicity and by preventing clashes of interest, both within the corporation and between the corporation and the public. XXIX. PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY PSYCHOLOGY HERBERT SIDNEY LANGFELD General. Important among the dis- | It" (Psych. Rev., March, 1913). He cussions of fundamental principles is says psychology needs introspection E. L. Thorndike's article, "Idea- as little as do the sciences of chemMotor Action" (Psych. Rev., March, istry and physics. For example, a 1913). He contends, contrary to the registration of the speech mechanism theories of James, Washburn and will probably give us all we need to others, that it is false that an idea know about the thought processes. tends to produce the act which is like He adds that it would be better if it. According to the results of a subjects were dumb and experimenters questionnaire sent to the members of deaf. M. W. Calkins severely critithe Psychological Association, a large cizes Watson's position in "Psycholmajority agree with his views. The ogy and the Behaviorist" (Psych. relation of psychology to philosophy Bull., July, 1913). J. R. Angell, in is at present a most vital problem his article "Behavior as a Category both from the practical side of the of Psychology" (Psych. Rev., July, relation of the departments in the 1913), is much less radical in his colleges and from the deeper theoreti- views than Watson. Although he cal significance. R. M. Ogden, in says, "I want to see just how ideas "The Relation of Psychology to and feelings embody themselves in Philosophy and Education" (ibid., action," yet he admits that "what May, 1913), presents examples from happens between the time a stimulus the examination of the higher thought affects a peripheral organ and the processes to show the advantages of later time at which some reaction is a closer union between psychology on made we can often only judge with the one side and philosophy and edu- approximate accuracy provided the cation on the other. The joint meet- individual concerned tells us what ing of the Philosophical and Psycho- has passed in his mind during the logical Association at Yale in De- interim." Among the introspectioncember had this same problem as the ists themselves there is discussion as chief topic of discussion. The be- to method. E. B. Titchner, in "The haviorists movement is emphasizing Method of Examination" (Am. Jour. more and more the close connection of Psych., July, 1913), criticizes the between psychology and the natural method of the Würzburg School in sciences. A recent important work experimenting on the thought procis M. Parmelee's Science of Human esses as affording neither sufficient Behavior; Biological and Psychologi- objective check nor opportunity of cal Foundations (MacMillan's), which repetition, and advocates a method discusses physico-chemical behavior, similar to that of N. Ach, which embehavior of the lower animals, the ploys systematic introspection. evolution of animal behavior, and the principles of human behavior. Experimental Human Psychology.— To begin with investigations on the sensory processes, there is a paper on "The Sensory Threshold for Faradic Stimulation in Man," by E. G. Martin, E. L. Porter and L. B. Rice (Psych. Rev., May, 1913), which describes an accurate method for obtaining very constant measurements of threshold for faradic current. S. I. Psychological Methods.-The opposition to the introspective method referred to last year (A. Y. B., 1912, p. 689) continues with the same vigor. J. B. Watson, the chief exponent of this movement in America, defends his position in an article, "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views Comparative Human Psychology.The treatises upon child psychology, upon character and mental groups, upon heredity, etc., are very numerous. The Psychological Bulletin for Oct. 15, 1913, gives a good summary of this literature. The interest in folk psychology seems to be on the increase in America, stimulated by the visit of Felix Krüger, the German exchange professor. In his article, "Magical Factors in the First Development of Human Labor" (Am. Jour. of Psych., April, 1913), he says: "We are unable to understand the psychological continuity of human development towards an individual and social form of life without genetically taking into account the magical and religious reaction of primitive mind upon every impression, experience, and to every situation of vital importance." Franz, in a paper on "The Accuracy | 1913), shows that for most people the of Localization of Touch Stimuli on morning hours are the best for learnDifferent Bodily Segments" (ibid., ing. K. M. Dallenbach, in "The ReMarch, 1913), shows that light touch lation of Memory Error to Time Inis more accurately located than terval" (Psych. Rev., July, 1913), heavier pressure. C. E. Ferree states states that the certainty of the obin "The Fluctuation of Liminal Visual server's reply is in direct relation to F. L. Stimuli of Point Area" (Am. Jour. the fidelity of the answer. of Psych., July, 1913) that the fluc- Wells, in "Practice and the Work tuation of liminal visual stimuli is Curve" (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., due to adaptation and recovery of the 1913), calls attention to the ever-ineye and not, as has been asserted, to creasing importance of individual difaccommodation of that organ. Among ferences. G. C. Myers, in a study the studies of the higher mental proc- in "Incidental Memory" (Arch. of esses, R. Dodges's paper, "Mental Psych., Feb., 1913), shows what a Work, A Study in Psycho Dynamics" strong factor our interest is in re(Psych. Rev., Jan., 1913), is a model membering details of even familiar treatise from a behaviorist point of objects. These results are of value view. It has been found that in calo- for law and education. rimeter tests the pulse rate is directly related to the amount of metabolism. It is assumed that the latter is directly related to the amount of mental work. Therefore Dodge has measured this amount by the pulse rate. He shows that the pulse of students during examination is more rapid during the first part of the period, when, as some assert, most of the mental work is performed. Most of the investigations on the higher processes continue to employ more or less introspection. R. Pintner maintains, in "Inner Speech During Silent Reading" (ibid., March, 1913), that articulation during reading is a habit but not necessary to the understanding. W. B. Pillsbury affirms, in the "Fluctuation of Attention and the Refactory Period" (Jour. of Phil., Psych., and Scientific Methods, March, 1913), that the short waves of attention are related to the Abnormal Psychology. The inlatest period and period of recovery fluence of the Freudian method of of the sensory neurons. Several trea- psycho-analysis for the treatment of tises on the perception of rhythm in- mental diseases and the explanation Iclude those of P. F. Swindle, "On the of dreams and abnormal condition is Inheritance of Rhythm" (Am. Jour. as noticeable as ever. A new journal of Psych., April, 1913), and of C. S. which has just appeared is the PsychoRuckmich, "The Role of Kinesthesis analytic Review; a Journal Devoted in the Perception of Rhythm" (ibid., to an Understanding of Human ConJuly, 1913). H. L. Hollingsworth duct, edited by W. A. White and S. E. states, in "Judgments of Similarity Jelliffe. Freud's The Interpretation and Difference" (Psych. Rev., July, of Dreams (MacMillan's) has just 1913), that one is more consistent been translated from the German. when judging if things are similar The Journal of Abnormal Psychology than if they are different. There are has published several important papers also a number of investigations on by followers of the Freudian prinmental efficiency. E. O. Finken- ciples, including "A Simple Fobia," binder, in the "The Curve of Forget- by Ernest Jones (June-July), and Far is Environment ting" (Am. Jour. of Psych., Jan., "How Re |