XXVI. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS

CHEMISTRY

INORGANIC AND PHYSICAL has been prepared by Meyer and

CHEMISTRY

ARTHUR WESLEY BROWNE Water. It has been shown by Guy, Schaeffer, and Jones that aqueous solutions of substances that form hydrates are more transparent, while solutions of substances that do not form hydrates are less transparent than pure water. These facts, which were ascertained with the aid of a radiomicrometer, are considered by the investigators to furnish new evidence for the solvate theory of solutions.

Hydrogen Peroxide and Ozone.-F. Fischer and Priess have found it possible to obtain large yields of hydrogen peroxide by reduction of oxygen gas under a pressure of from 25 to 100 atmospheres. The reduction was effected either electrochemically, with a dilute acid as the electrolyte, or chemically, as, for example, by use of a liquid zinc amalgam with dilute sulphuric acid. A method for the preparation of relatively concentrated solutions of ozone in dilute acids has been devised by Rothmund and Burgstaller, who have also studied the velocity of decomposition of ozone in aqueous solution. The intense orangered coloration noted by Manchot when ozone was passed into liquid ammonia is probably attributable to the presence of ammonium hydroxide, which would behave similarly to potassium hydroxide (A. Y. B., 1912, p. 627). The use of ozonized air in the detection of methane, which reacts with ozone yielding formaldehyde, is recommended by Hauser and Herzfeld.

Steiner by heating mellitic acid with benzoyl chloride. Rhead and Wheeler have reached the conclusion that when carbon and oxygen unite at temperatures up to 900 deg. C., the first product of the combustion is a "loosely formed physico-chemical complex, which may be regarded as an unstable compound, C.Oy." At a given temperature this complex tends to decompose into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in a certain ratio. Lidoff has continued his researches upon oxane (A. Y. B., 1912, pp. 627, 630), and has found that this substance may be obtained by the action of nitrogen peroxide upon charcoal at 150 to 300 deg. C. Even better results were obtained with nitrous oxide.

Photochemistry and Actinochemistry.-By subjecting mixtures of carbon monoxide and cyanogen to the action of ultraviolet light, Berthelot and Gaudechon have obtained the new compound, carbon oxycyanide, CO (CN),, in the form of a yellow solid which does not sublime at 200 deg., but which reacts with water to form hydrocyanic acid and carbon dioxide. În connection with a study of the dissociation by light of the hydrides of certain elements in the chlorine and oxygen groups, these investigators have found that in photochemical reactions frequency of vibration is analogous to temperature in ordinary reactions, and that the stability of the compounds of elements in the same group toward light decreases with increasing atomic weight of the elements. This latter conclusion was confirmed by results Carbon.-A very stable new obtained during a subsequent study of carbon with the formula C12O, of the hydrides of certain elements in

oxide

near Upernivik, on July 12. The greatest altitude reached on the journey was about 9,000 ft. above the sea. Another expedition has crossed the island; this, under M. Quervain, crossed from the west coast in latitude 69 deg. 45 min. North to Augmagsalik on the east coast. The highest point reached was a trifle over 9,000 ft. above sea level.

in March, 1913, by the University Museum of Philadelphia to explore the Amazon Basin. The leader is Dr. W. C. Farabee. It is carried on a fine steam yacht commanded by Capt. J. H. Rowen (U. S. N. retired), who has charge of the geographic work.

India. Under the auspices of the Indian Government, an expedition in two detachments, under J. Barnard and F. V. Clerk, has been sent out to explore the head waters of the Ira

Franz Josef Land.-A French expedition, organized by M. Jules de Payer for the exploration of the northeast-wadi River. ern part of Franz Josef Land, sailed from Havre on Aug. 10, 1913, intending to winter at Vardö. The Russian expedition for the exploration of this same region has not been heard of definitely, although rumors of a disaster have reached Russia.

Peru. During 1912 Prof. Hiram Bingham conducted a second expedition to Peru, which was financed jointly by Yale University and the National Geographic Society (A. Y. B., 1912, p. 685). Much topographical and geological work was done in Cuzco and the Urubamba River valley cañon. The main feature of the expedition's work was the discovery of an ancient Inca capital, Machu Picchu, which is situated on a mountain in the cañon of the Urubamba River. This is a large place, wonderfully well built with cut stone, and when cleared of the tropical undergrowth which enshrouded it, seemed to be wonderfully preserved. This is probably one of the most notable discoveries of its kind ever made. Another expedition to Peru, under the auspices of the American Geographical Society, and the leadership of Prof. Isaiah Bowman, who was geologist with Prof. Bingham's expedition in 1911, started for its field of work in June, 1913. The objects are geological, geographical, and anthropological.

Brazil. An expedition was sent out

New Guinea.-The German expedition for the exploration of the Kaiserin Augusta River reports excellent progress, and it was expected that the exploration of the lower and middle portions of this river and the neighboring country would be completed by the end of 1913. In western New Guinea, Dr. Wollaston, accompanied by Lieut. Vanderwater of the Dutch Army, succeeded in reaching the summit of Mt. Carstensz, the height of which is approximately 16,000 ft. Several other expeditions, among them those under Capt. Hordershee, Dr. Moszkowski, and Weyerman, are engaged in extending the known area of this great island.

An

Africa. The Saharan Railway expedition was organized for the purpose of discovering the best railway route from Adrar to Lake Chad and the Niger valley. In the course of this work, carried on during 1912, many lines were run and a great extent of country was mapped. English punitive expedition sent to Odonga, in the Egyptian Soudan, to subdue the unruly Anuak Tribes has added to our information regarding this part of Africa. Further exploration of the Kamerun has been made by a Dutch party under Professor Thorbecke. A French expedition has made explorations in the southern part of Angola.

XXVI. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS

CHEMISTRY

INORGANIC AND PHYSICAL has been prepared by Meyer and

CHEMISTRY

ARTHUR WESLEY BROWNE Water. It has been shown by Guy, Schaeffer, and Jones that aqueous solutions of substances that form hydrates are more transparent, while solutions of substances that do not form hydrates are less transparent than pure water. These facts, which were ascertained with the aid of a radiomicrometer, are considered by the investigators to furnish new evidence for the solvate theory of solutions.

Hydrogen Peroxide and Ozone.-F. Fischer and Priess have found it possible to obtain large yields of hydrogen peroxide by reduction of oxygen gas under a pressure of from 25 to 100 atmospheres. The reduction was effected either electrochemically, with a dilute acid as the electrolyte, or chemically, as, for example, by use of a liquid zinc amalgam with dilute sulphuric acid. A method for the preparation of relatively concentrated solutions of ozone in dilute acids has been devised by Rothmund and Burgstaller, who have also studied the velocity of decomposition of ozone in aqueous solution. The intense orangered coloration noted by Manchot when ozone was passed into liquid ammonia is probably attributable to the presence of ammonium hydroxide, which would behave similarly to potassium hydroxide (A. Y. B., 1912, p. 627). The use of ozonized air in the detection of methane, which reacts with ozone yielding formaldehyde, is recommended by Hauser and Herzfeld.

Steiner by heating mellitic acid with benzoyl chloride. Rhead and Wheeler have reached the conclusion that when carbon and oxygen unite at temperatures up to 900 deg. C., the first product of the combustion is a "loosely formed physico-chemical complex, which may be regarded as an unstable compound, C、Oy." At a given temperature this complex tends to decompose into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in a certain ratio. Lidoff has continued his researches upon oxane (A. Y. B., 1912, pp. 627, 630), and has found that this substance may be obtained by the action of nitrogen peroxide upon charcoal at 150 to 300 deg. C. Even better results were obtained with nitrous oxide.

Photochemistry and Actinochemistry.-By subjecting mixtures of carbon monoxide and cyanogen to the action of ultraviolet light, Berthelot and Gaudechon have obtained the new compound, carbon oxycyanide, CO (CN),, in the form of a yellow solid which does not sublime at 200 deg., but which reacts with water to form hydrocyanic acid and carbon dioxide. In connection with a study of the dissociation by light of the hydrides of certain elements in the chlorine and oxygen groups, these investigators have found that in photochemical reactions frequency of vibration is analogous to temperature in ordinary reactions, and that the stability of the compounds of elements in the same group toward light decreases with increasing atomic weight of the elements. This latter conclusion was confirmed by results Carbon.-A very stable new oxide obtained during a subsequent study of carbon with the formula C,,O, of the hydrides of certain elements in

the nitrogen and carbon groups. from that of the parent atom by two

Alleged Synthesis of Helium and Neon.-By far the most absorbing scientific topic of the year in chemistry has been that of the alleged synthesis of helium and neon in vacuum tubes. The residual gases obtained by heating deeply colored X-ray bulbs were found by W. Ramsay to contain "a measurable trace of helium in which the neon spectrum could also be recognized." While acknowledging the possibility that these gases might be able to penetrate the walls of the bulb under the influence of the cathode discharge, Ramsay concludes, "it is possible that these gases

Berthelot and Gaudechon have also units.
used ultraviolet light in effecting the
synthesis of formamide from carbon
monoxide and ammonia, the decom-
position of formamide, the polymer-
ization of cyanogen and acetylene,
and the photolysis of acetone, which
yields carbon monoxide and ethane in
equal volumes. Farnau has made a
study of luminescence, which he at-
tributes to chemical action. Increas
ing the rate of the reaction by rais-
ing the temperature or by addition
of a catalytic agent was found to in-
crease the luminescence. The qual-
ity of luminescence was found to de-
pend but slightly upon temperature,
method of production, nature of the
catalytic agent, or nature of the
anion, but in general to depend al-
most wholly upon the nature of the
cation. Wöhler and Krupko have in-
vestigated the sensitiveness to light
of various metallic trinitrides. Vin-
cent and Marley have endeavored to
duplicate the experiments of Matus-
chek and Nenning described in the
last issue of the YEAR BOOK (p.
627), but have failed to obtain evi-
dence supporting the conclusions of
these investigators.

are in some way the product of the cathode rays." In the opinion of B. Moore, the formation of the gases might be considered to result from a charging of the ether with energy from the cathode, by a process essentially the reverse of that of radioactive decomposition. J. N. Collie and H. Patterson, working independently of each other at first, identified helium and neon after the passage of an electric discharge through tubes containing hydrogen at low pressure, although great care was taken to Radiochemistry.-The atomic weight guard against leakage of gases from of radium has been carefully rede- the atmosphere into the tubes. In termined by Hönigschmid, who has connection with his researches upon studied the ratio RaCl, 2AgCl. The positive rays, J. J. Thomson has obresult of six determinations, in which tained evidence of the existence of a a total weight of over six grams of new gas, of atomic weight 3, which radium chloride was employed, is he calls X. Under conditions favorgiven as 225.95+.02. From the ra- able to the formation of this gas, tios RaCl, RaBr, and RaBr, RaCl,, which was obtained by passing the Gray and Ramsay have obtained the ordinary discharge produced by an decidedly different value, 226.36. In induction coil through a large bulb a second investigation Hönigschmid furnished with aluminium terminals has repeated the work of these in- and containing gas at low pressure, vestigators obtaining the result helium and neon also were usually 225.94. As pointed out by S. Meyer, obtained. The method that gave X, Hönigschmid's value, although not and also the other gases in greatest agreeing with that deduced from the abundance consisted in bombarding atomic weight of uranium, differs metals, or indeed almost any subfrom that of lead by just five times stance, with cathode rays. "The reathe weight of the alpha particle. son helium is obtained by heating the Some information concerning the val- glass of old Röntgen-ray bulbs is, I ence of the radio-elements has been think, that after liberation by the gained by G. v. Hevesy, by a study cathode rays, the helium either adof the mobilities and the diffusion heres to the surface or is absorbed in constants of radioactive substances. a much looser way than before it was In nine cases the valence of the prod- liberated." As the result of later uct left after the expulsion of an experiments it was found by Thomalpha particle was found to differ son that "when the salts of ithium,