Battery, New York, to Sandy Hook. This race was won by George Meehan of Boston, who swam the 22 miles in 7 hours, 18 minutes, lowering the record by one hour. Yale for the second successive year. won the intercollegiate team championship. Paul Roberts of Yale won the 50-yard and 100-yard races, and Arthur McAleenan of Yale captured the fancy diving event for the second consecutive time. The conference college title was won by the University of Illinois. SWITZERLAND. A Federal republic of central Europe. Capital, Berne. POPULATION. According to the census of Dec. 31, 1910, the de jure population numbered 3,753,293; de facto population, 3,765,123. The area of the 25 cantons and demicantons, with their population as calculated by the Federal Statistical Bureau for the middle of the year 1912, are shown in the table below: Pop. 524,590 654,520 170,680 Sq. km. 1,724.76 6,844.50 1,500.80 1,076.00 908.26 474.80 290.50 691.20 239.20 1,674.60 791.51 Basel-L'dt. 35.76 427.47 Schaffhausen 294.22 The figures for 1912-13 are final, those for 1913-14 are subject to revision. The final results of the Federal live stock census of April 21, 1911, are compared with those 22.490 of the census of April 20, 1906, as follows: 58,910 144,128 horses (135,372 in 1906), of which 17,460 17,498 (17,344) were colts under four years, 13,900 157 (156) were stallions, 6424 (5496) were 83,470 28,640 brood mares, and 120,049 (112,376) were gen141,520 eral-purpose stock. Cattle, 1,443,483 (1,498,119,620 144), of which 796,909 (785,950) were cows, 139,940 77,740 94,069 (98,358) were heifers over two years, and 46,820 164,355 (186,022) under two years and over 58,400 one, 7345 (7167) bulls over two years, and 18,862 (19,549) under two and over one year, 23,454 (33,897) oxen over two years, and 17,409 (28,144) under two and over one; 188,541 (186,2,800.90 158,950 307) young breeding stock, 38,708 (41,392) young beef stock; 93,831 (112,358) calves under one year; goats, 341,296 (362,117); swine, 570,226 (548,970); bee hives, 225,030 (242,544 in 1901.). There were placed for hatching in 1913, 335 hectograms of silkworm eggs, producing 30,798 kilograms of cocoons. 8,252.00 824,800 5,224.49 129,830 .41,323.99 3,881,220 The 1910 census returned 2,108,642 Protestants, and 1,590,832 Roman Catholics. Those speaking German as their native tongue numbered 2,599,194, French 796,220, Italian 301,323, Romansh 39,912, other languages 28,172. The marriages in 1912 numbered 27,843, as compared with 27,809 in 1911; divorces, 1514 (1623 in 1911); births, 95,171 (94,185), of which illegitimate 4592 (4372); stillbirths, 2975 (2865); deaths, 54,102 (59,619). The emigrants in 1913 numbered 6191 (5871 in 1912); of these 4367 (4195 in 1911) went to the United States, 874 to Argentina, 257 to Brazil, etc. The greatest number, 1099, came from Berne. The communal population of Zürich as estimated in the middle of 1913 was 200,600; Basel, 137,500; Geneva, 135,000; Berne, 90,800; St.-Gall, 80,000; Lausanne, 69,400; Lucerne, 41, 500; Chaux-de-Fonds, 38,600; Winterthur, 25, 800; Neuchâtel, 24,100; Bienne, 24,000; Fribourg, 21,200; Montreux, 19,700; Schaffhausen, 18,600; Vevey, 14,000. EDUCATION. Primary instruction is free, and in the Protestant cantons attendance is enforced. There is no direct Federal control of education, authority being vested in the cantons and communes. Secondary schools are amply provided, and well attended. There are excellent special schools, and seven universities. PRODUCTION. In the valleys agriculture is commercial establishments, and 71,413 home inThere were, in 1905, 242,543 industrial and thread, woolens, leather, gloves, pottery, watches dustrial enterprises. Silks, cottons, linen, lace, and clocks, and tobacco and snuff are representa tive manufactures. There were 137 breweries in operation in 1913, with an output of 2,969,200 allied products in 1913, 785,535 metric tons. hectoliters of beer. Total output of cement and The manufacture of butter, cheese, condensed milk, and milk chocolate constitutes an important source of the country's wealth, and great quantities are exported. COMMERCE. The special trade for three years is given in francs in the table below: Exports 6,869 98,344 118,717 121,849 16,100 Clothing, ready made 55,885 Copper work .114,960 104,187 35,827 Gold & silver bullion 99,563 Clocks Chemicals 54,465 47,466 19,174 20,040 Grease, oils, etc. 31,723 28,775 2,427 2,089 Countries of origin and destination are presented below, with the value of their trade (merchandise) in thousands of francs: of it being on the rack system with gradients of 1 in 14, and 1 in 19 The 5-mile Hauenstein Pass tunnel, connecting Tecknau and Olten, was pierced during the year, but completion of the Mont d'Or was delayed by the inrush of water. The effect of the war was seriously felt by the various railway systems of Switzerland, and the Federal railways were forced to economize in every possible way. By the end of September there was little international traffic, and the ordinary traffic fell to about one-fourth of its normal amount, while tourist traffic was even more seriously affected, and great losses were suffered by the freight traffic. Work on the second Simplon tunnel was stopped in August, and excavations on the north side ceased on August 4, the masoning over on August 22, while on the south side the work was very considerably reduced as early as August 3, and most of the workmen dismissed. By October but a few employees were retained, merely to insure the safety of the completed and incompleted tunnels. The private railways in Switzerland were quite as seriously affected as the Federal lines, and the traffic on the mountain railways in the Exps. neighborhood of Lucerne fell to practically noth307,029 ing, while in August the Stanserhorn and Rigi137,984 Scheidegg ceased running. The Swiss private 90,608 88,662 railways, which before the war paid about 4 per 230,005 cent dividend, on an average paid much less 11,870 during 1914 than in previous years, and the Federal railways suffered so much in August and 9,706 September by receipts falling off almost 50 per cent, that a winter timetable was put in force with a greatly reduced schedule, designed on account of the small number of tourists expected in the season of 1914-15. The board of directors of the Federal railways resolved to reduce expenditures on the new line to the lowest possible amount, which was less than half of what was originally contemplated in the fall of 1914. The number of passes was to be restricted, the railway uniforms were to be made to wear longer, and various other economies were to be practiced. The Federal railway estimates prepared for 1915 anticipated a deficit for nearly $6,000,000, whereas in 1913 the balance of receipts over expenditures was about $345,000, and there should have been a surplus for 1914. 27,620 47,808 135,672 Brazil 20,686 37,282 22,060 28,996 51,972 17,396 COMMUNICATIONS. On the first of January, 1912, there were in operation 4917.4 kilometers of railway. The national railways comprehend about one-third of all lines, but their operation has not proved an unqualified success. The rolling stock in 1912 included 1594 locomotives, 4879 passenger cars, and 18,344 freight cars. Passengers carried during 1912, 2,523,874,190; merchandise transported, 1,437,481,565 metric tons. Receipts from operation during 1912, 248,844,972 francs; expenses, 165,038,834 francs -not including extraordinary expenditures, which are not charged in this account. Cost of construction to end of 1912, 1,923,255,656 francs. During the early part of 1914 Switzerland showed the greatest activity in railway construction of any of the countries in Europe. On the new route between Nice, Cannes, and Turin, progress was being made, and a number of tunnels had already been completed, while others were being bored. This line, which would require some three years more for completion, would reduce the distance between Nice and Turin by 47 miles. The new and direct route via Delle to Lötschberg and Simplon to Italy, piercing the Jura Range by the Grenchenberg single track tunnel, 5% miles in length, was completed during the year, and makes possible a direct route to Italy. An important mountain line, the Furka railway between Brig and Disentis, was opened in June, and is 60 miles in length, part Plans had been prepared for what would be the longest Alpine railway, running from Brig, near the Italian border, to Disentis, connecting the former place with the Federal Swiss railways. This line was to begin at the end of the Simplon tunnel at 2200 feet above sea-level, and pass directly over the St. Gothard tunnel as a surface road, at 4700 feet above sea-level, running at one point 7100 feet, to connect Brig with St. Moritz, through an existing branch line, thus affording a tourist route of surpassing beauty, through the region of the upper Rhone, and the headwaters of the Rhine. There were in 1911, 442.23 kilometers of tramways in operation, and 423 of funicular railways. State telegraph lines, 3575 kilometers; wires, 26,306; stations, 2291. There were in operation 21,336 kilometers of telephone lines, with 360,425 of wires. Post offices, 1957. Postal receipts for the year 1912, 64,367,567 francs; expenditure, 61,853,679. Telegraph and telephone receipts, 287,037,720; expenses, 283,792,225. Total cost of line construction to end of 1912, 70,842,003 (5,124,384 in 1912) francs. FINANCE. The unit of value is the franc, par value 19.295 cents. Actual revenue and expenditure for three years are given below in francs: 1912 166,866,721 172,209,361 102,388,649 ...161,330,520 172,461,307 100,933,098 The figures for 1911 as given above are the results of the old system of computation; by decision of the Federal Assembly only the net results of administration of the department of posts and telegraphs are to be included, dating from 1911, in the account. According to this new basis of calculating, the revenue for 1911 is 98,044,100 francs, and the expenditure 98,296,046. The details of the budget for 1914 are presented below in thousands of francs: empowered to make sickness insurance compulsory instead of voluntary. Compulsory accident insurance was to come into operation at a later date. The budget debates were marked by opposition to the army appropriation, which amounted to about $9,000,000 out of the total expenditure of about $20,000,000 for all purThe unfavorable financial condition of poses. the country-signalized by three bank failures in the Canton of Tessin-was alleged as an additional reason why the government should hesitate to spend so large a sum for military purThe mobilization of the Swiss army, poses. however, as a result of the War of the Nations, necessitated a still more excessive expenditure, to meet which new taxation was imposed and war loans floated. On December 17, the National 1000 fr. Assembly elected the Vice-President, Dr. Giuseppe Motta, a Catholic-Conservative, to hold the office of President for the year 1915, and M. Camille Decoppet, an anti-clerical Liberal, to be Vice-President for the same term. See, also, INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION AND PEACE, BryanWilson Treaties. 45,753 16,640 Military 16,582 9,677 9,314 2,353 1,606 139 Political 1,188 572 1,756 Interior The debt stood Jan. 1, 1912, at 255,130,031 francs. ARMY. While the neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed by the Treaty of Vienna of 1815, as a condition indispensable to the peace of Europe, and the general interests of the neighboring countries, nevertheless the inhabitants in 1914 feared some violation of that neutrality, and accordingly the army was mobilized and maintained on the borders. The Swiss army is a national militia in which service is compulsory for each citizen, although the time of service actually required is not of long duration. Ordinarily a citizen is liable for 13 years' service in the Auszug or Elite, 8 years in the Landwehr, and the remaining years up to the 48th in the Landsturm. This permits of recruit training in the first year of 92 days for the cavalry, 77 days for the artillery, 67 days for the infantry, with repetition courses of 13 days in each of the second to the eighth years. In this way the field army can be assembled over 200,000 strong, 140,000 men being an average strength of the Auszug, and the rest being derived from the Landwehr. The Landsturm consists of about 300,000 men, and is intended for the defense of communications, railways, and interior lines generally. The Swiss military system maintains a permanent instructional staff and the organization is one of cadres that are filled as required. GOVERNMENT. The executive authority is vested in a Federal council of seven members, elected for three years by the National Assembly, and presided over by the President of the confederation, who, with the Vice-President, is elected for one year by the Assembly from among the members of the council. The legislative power resides in a national assembly made up of two houses. The President for 1914 was Col. Dr. Arthur Hoffmann, born 1857; VicePresident, Giuseppe Motta. HISTORY. The Sickness Insurance Act, recently adopted by referendum, came into force on January 1. The cantonal governments were SYNDICALISM. Syndicalism is that new form of collectivism which advocates the concentration in the hands of the workers of each industry of its own instruments of protection. The name is also applied to the most radical labor movement of the day, which aims at the ending of the present capitalist system. It had its inception in France, and denotes the policy of the Confederation Générale du Travail, and derives its name from the French trade unions, the "syndicats." It has, within the past few years, spread to the United States, South Africa, Austria, New Zealand, Great Britain, and other parts of Europe. It differs from Socialism in that the latter favors political action, while the Syndicalists advocate direct action without parliament or any such body as an intermediary. Further, Socialism appeals to public opinion as a whole, while this more revolutionary movement is distinctly for the working classes. Again, although similar in some respects to trade unions, it aims toward organization of the workers of whole industries rather than those in any class or trade. Direct action, including the general strike and sabotage, are at the basis of this movement. By sabotage is meant a "willful act on the part of the workers intended to reduce the output of production in the industrial field, or to restrict trade and reduce profits in the commercial field in order to secure from their employers better conditions, or to enforce those promised, or maintain those already secured when no other way of redress is open." Destruction or spoiling of materials, the prevention of production, and other similar means are ofttimes resorted to. During 1914 the Syndicalist ideas exerted influence in the South African strike, in the general strike in Italy, noted below, and in the Dublin disturbance. (See STRIKES.) In the United States, the I. W. W., which is more active in promulgating these ideas, continued to work among the laborers. See INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD. ITALIAN GENERAL STRIKE. In the summer of 1914 what was perhaps the first successful general strike occurred in Italy. It had been determined at the annual conference of the General Confederation of Labor of Italy, in April, that a general strike should be called for not less than 24 hours and not more than 48 whenever a workman was killed by the public authorities as a result of labor agitation. On June 7, the Italian holiday that corresponds to our Fourth of July, an anarchistic demonstration of sympathy for two military convicts was held, and the parade, led by Enrico Malatesta, was fired upon, and three were killed. The next day the execu tive committee of the Confederation acted according to the decision of the previous conference, calling a general strike. All but the city of Padua obeyed, but most of the government employees remained at their work. For two days industry in Italy was at a standstill. Ac cording to the statement of Premier Salandra, more than 100 soldiers and police were wounded, many fatally. While the disturbances rather widespread, they were most serious in Romagna and the Marches, and for several days a few of the towns in these sections were completely isolated from the outside world. At Anacona Malatesta, there was held a sort of revolutionary tribunal. They conscripted automobiles, and spread the news that the King had left the country. On June 10 the order to return to work was issued, and the next day the greater part of Italy had resumed its normal life. In Romagna and the Marches, also in Milan and Naples, it was not until nearly a week had passed that order was completely restored. The government has since taken steps to prevent a recurrence of any such uprising. were SYPHILIS. See INSANITY, and SALVARASAN. SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY. An institution for higher education at Syracuse, N. Y., founded in 1870. The students enrolled in all departments of the university in the autumn of 1914 were 3933, and the faculty numbered 300. There were no notable changes in the faculty during the year, and no noteworthy benefactions were received. The productive funds amounted to $2,011,648, and the income to about $500,000. The library contained about 92,000 volumes. The president is James R. Day, S.T.D., LL.D. TAIWAN. See FORMOSA. TALL BUILDINGS. EQUITABLE BUILDING. During the year work was actively in progress on the Equitable Building, New York City, the largest office building in existence, built on the site of the burned office structure of the Equitable Life Assurance Society. The framework of this building was entirely erected, and the structure was practically closed in at the end of the year, so that it would be in readiness for occupancy in 1915. This building occupies the entire block, Broadway to Nassau Street, between Pine and Cedar Streets, and it differs from other lofty buildings in New York City in that it is not a tower building, but is a normal type of structure, the ground plan being carried up undiminished 36 main stories to the top, with 3 stories below ground. The building is 542 feet high from the Broadway sidewalk to coping, and measures from the level of the normal foundation grillages about 600 feet in height. In structure it is regular in design, with all columns running from the footing to the roof without trusses or other complications of frame, and is composed essentially of columns, beams, and wind bracing. A novel feature is the carrying of the bank vaults in the basement on their own foundations independent of the steel work, thus doing away with the additional weight of the framing, which would have been required to support them. The area occupied by the building is slightly more than an acre, being 159 feet in average width, and 308 feet in average length, affording a total floor space of nearly 40 acres. The weight of the steel framework was 32,000 tons, which made it considerably in excess of anything hitherto achieved in office building construction. An elaborate scheme of wind bracing was worked out, figured on a pressure of 30 pounds per square foot, over the entire surface from sidewalk to coping. The elevators were in 6 banks of 8 each, in the centre of the building, extending, respectively, to the 13th, 21st, 28th, 33d, 36th, and 38th floors. The architecture of the building is simple, and affords ample light for the many offices. On the economic side the erection of the building was thought to afford additional rather than necessary accommodations in a field already congested, especially in view of the existing depression in business. BOSTON CUSTOMHOUSE. The city of Boston has an ordinance limiting the height of buildings to 125 feet, so, consequently, that city is not as abundantly supplied with skyscrapers as other American places. During the year there was being completed the United States Customhouse, which, being exempt from the city restrictions, was rising to a height of 325 feet, or about one-half the height of the Woolworth Building in New York City. This building has a central tower with pyramidal top, which furnishes a notable landmark. TOWER OF JEWELS-PANAMA-PACIFIC EXPOSI TION. Quite different from the usual office or tower building was the Tower of Jewels at the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco. This 435-foot skyscraper on two hinged arches, overtopping the surrounding roofs by 250 feet or more, was the dominating feature of the architectural scheme of the exposition. The steel frame of this structure consisted mainly of six frames parallel to each other, two of them vertical, and the other four battered. The two vertical or interior frames rose to an elevation of 364 feet, being 20 feet centre to centre throughout, while the two exterior frames were battered to meet vertically the interior frames at 335 feet above the base. The tower rose vertically in the form of a cube 120 feet square in plan to a height of 152 feet, being pierced in a north and south direction by a barrel arch, the soffit of which was 119 feet above the court. This great height of vault was made possible by two hinged arches, measuring 126 feet from the bottom hinge to the centre of the lower chord. The main steel frame of the tower supported an exterior shell composed of timber, plaster, and staff, and above the rectangular section it was in the form of a successive series of decks. The tower was decorated by the studding of the exterior surface with thousands of cut glass "jewels," which, glistening in the bright sun or under the artificial lights, furnish a brilliant and dazzling spectacle. Engineering problems involved the proper construction of the steel frame, with stress analysis, calculation of temperature stresses, wind stresses, and various working stresses, in addition to the proper foundations on which cast-iron steel trusses carrying two hinged arches were placed. The architectural design was by Thomas Hastings of New York, and the structural work and substructure were designed by Messrs. H. D. Dewell and |