grant, and not with an escape from a condition of threatened starvation. In the 40's, at the time of the potato famine in Ireland, many of the thousands who came to this country were in serious danger of absolute starvation if they remained at home. Practically none of our immigrants of the present day are in such a condition.

Europeans' Wages and Standards of Living Much Lower Than the United States

The contrast in conditions between the parts of Europe from which most of our immigrants come today, is perhaps most noticeable in agricultural districts. Our farmers and farm laborers are perhaps the most prosperous and comfortable of our so-called laborers, with the exception of our skilled artizans. In Russia, where the change from a condition of serfdom has not always resulted in greater comfort for the people, a crop failure is likely to result in a famine. In other countries the methods of cultivation are often so primitive, the markets so difficult of access, the taxes so high, that the margin of profit is very low. A bad crop or two often means disaster-emigration, where that can be attained.

The money wages in southern Europe, from which more than 80 per cent. of our present immigrants are coming, are indeed very low as compared with those in the United States-often not over one-third as much. Moreover, the assertion often made that, owing to lower prices in Europe, the low wages will furnish practically as good living conditions as those in the United States is a mistaken one. While the peasants or workmen may live on those wages, the standard

is far below that of the United States as regards houses, which are often mere huts with earth floors; or clothing, which is scant or coarse as compared with that of the corresponding classes in the United States; or food, in many cases the people being rarely able to afford any food but the simplest vegetables, meat being tasted rarely on feast days, or among the better classes perhaps on Sundays.

It is to improve these conditions that most of the immigrants leave their country, often with the thought of making a home in the new country to which they can later bring their families, unless they are able to take their families with them, but often also with the thought that by rigid economy and hard work for three to five years in the United States, they can send enough money home to purchase land, so that they may improve decidedly their economic and likewise their social status in the home country, and become, instead of mere laborers, peasant proprietors, with the opportunity of placing their children in a class distinctly above their own.

Military Service

In some countries, also, where military service is compulsory, the opportunity of escaping that service for two or three years at the time when life's tasks are just beginning is a motive, also largely economic in its nature, that helps to emigration. Frequently the entrance upon military service would mean the postponement of marriage or the interruption of a steady employment that would prevent saving for at least the period of the service itself.

The result of this economic pressure in the home

country is that the United States is likely to receive as immigrants the most enterprising and the strongest of the hand-workers, whatever the occupation may be. The weakest and less ambitious will not have the energy or the means of freeing themselves from their old conditions and securing the means to go to America.

Effect of Immigration Upon European Countries

The effect of emigration upon the European countries has its beneficial as well as its evil aspect. Naturally the different governments do not wish to lose the military service of the young emigrant, and in most cases unless that service has been performed, the emigrant is likely to be held responsible whenever he may wish to return to his home country, even for a visit. Moreover, the removal from the labor force of the nation at the period of greatest ambition and energy, if not of skill, of hundreds of thousands of their workers, can not but be detrimental, provided those workers leave to become citizens of the new country.

In a very large percentage of instances, however, especially in later days, the emigrant, after a period of a few years abroad, returns to his home country with added financial means, and what is perhaps of still greater importance, a far wider outlook upon life and business methods. Frequently, too, he is inspired with new ambition and hope, which makes him much more efficient than he could have been had he remained at home.

In a late investigation made by the Italian Government into conditions in Sicily, the beneficial effect of the returning emigrant was exprest in the strongest terms. In effect, it was said that greater than the

benefit of any laws that the Government could pass, better than any training which the Government could give the people, was the beneficial influence of the returning emigrant. Not merely did he bring new wealth into the country, but what was of still greater importance than the imported wealth, he brought with him the American spirit of intelligent enterprise, which made of him a much worthier and more helpful citizen.

Attitude of European Governments Toward

Immigration

The attitude of European governments toward emigration is determined very largely, of course, by these factors. The countries whose situation compels them to maintain a large standing army are opposed to the emigration of able men in the prime of their productive and financial powers. They have had the expense of raising them through the unproductive period of childhood and fitting them to become selfsupporting wage-earners. If at the period when they are just beginning to be productive they emigrate, the expense of their rearing is an absolute loss.

Furthermore, they naturally regret the permanent emigration of their strongest and most enterprising wage-earners, for this means the curtailing of their manufacturing and commercial power.

On the other hand, so far as they believe that the emigrants are going to the United States to remain but a short period, and in the meantime to send back to the home country for investment all of their surplus earnings, and then later themselves return more skilful, more enterprising, more patriotic citizens of their

own country, the foreign governments are willing to encourage their going. In fact, about 40 per cent. of the new emigrants from southern and eastern Europe do return to their home country after a short period of residence in the United States, and some 30 per cent. of all those coming to this country return home to make their permanent investments and remain.

Effect Upon the United States of the Return to Europe of the Immigrant

It can hardly be said that taken by itself the sending back to the old country of the savings of the immigrant is directly an injury to the United States. Speaking broadly, for every dollar sent more than a dollar's worth of productive labor has been expended here. The worker has fully earned his dollar. On the other hand, if that dollar, instead of being invested in his home country, were invested in the United States the benefit would be greater. America should have the productive influence of not only the labor but also of the capital made from the savings; and, furthermore, this country and not the home country would be deriving in the years to come the benefit of the added experience, improved skill and stimulated spirit of enterprise of the immigrant. While, therefore, we may not properly oppose the return of the immigrant, we may well offer inducements to change his mental attitude so that he will prefer to make his investments and his permanent residence here. Again, if the process of selection is practicable, we may well select those immigrants whose intention it is permanently to identify themselves with their adopted country, rather than those whose residence is but temporary.