to make incomplete or elliptical sentences, which have to be filled up in order to be described and parsed.

It may often fairly be made a question whether we shall supply an ellipsis, declaring a certain word or 'words to be understood, or whether we shall take the sentence just as it stands, regarding the mode of expression as so usual that the mind, even on reflection, is unconscious of the absence of anything that should be there.

Thus, it would be quite absurd to fill out a phrase in which for was used as conjunction to the form (as explained just above) out of which its use as conjunction grew; but we may either treat as if as a conjunction-phrase or fill in the clause which (494) the as really represents.

506. But our words also change sometimes, more or less, their grammatical character, simply by our coming to apprehend in a new way the expressions in which they are used.

Thus, we have observed already (189) the formation of the reciprocal pronounphrases one another and each other by our losing sight of the original difference of construction between the two pronouns composing them; also (289) the great shift of meaning of the passive participle when used with the auxiliary have to make "perfect" tenses; and other like cases.

So, further, the use of both and either or neither and whether as conjunctions, correlative to a following and and or or nor, is by derivation from their value as pronouns, by a changed understanding of such sentences as these:

I saw both -[namely] John and William;

either [one of us] - he or I must give way;

he knows whether [i. e. which of the two] - this or that is true. So, once more, than is only then, with a changed office; this is better than that means originally this is better, then (that is, 'next after it') that.

507. In part by abbreviation, in part by other changes of construction and of the value of words, every language has many modes of expression which are exceptional, unlike its ordinary combinations phrases and sentences which if taken literally would not mean what we use them to mean, or which puzzle us when we attempt to analyze and explain them.

Such irregular expressions are called IDIOMS (from a Greek word meaning 'peculiarity'). Their production is a part of that constant change of language (7) which is often called its "growth." In order really to account for them, we need

especially a knowledge of the history of our language. The present usages of any tongue we cannot fully understand without knowing something of its past usages, out of which these have grown; and often a great deal of study, and a comparison of other languages, is required for settling difficult points.

The branch of study which attempts this, which traces out the history of words and phrases, and shows how they come to be used as they are, is called ETYMOLOGY or, in a more general way, historical grammar; and, when carried on upon a wide scale, COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.

508. Hence, to expect young scholars, who have not studied the English language in its earlier forms, to explain the real difficulties of English construction, is in a high degree unreasonable; nor should such matters be brought before them at all until they have gained a thorough and familiar knowledge of the usual and regular constructions.

EXERCISES TO CHAPTER XVII,

ON ABBREVIATED AND INCOMPLETE EXPRESSION.

We have now one further question to ask, in taking up a sentence : namely, whether it is an incomplete one. If it is, it should be defined as such, and those words should be added which are necessary in order to enable us to parse it.

XXXII. Miscellaneous examples.

Wild ambition loves to slide, not stand.

Favors to none, to all she smiles extends;
Oft she rejects, but never once offends.

As night to stars, woe lustre gives to man.

We have no slaves at home; then why abroad?

God is thy law, thou mine.

His life will be safe, his possessions safe, his rank safe.

Death but entombs the body; life, the soul.

Not simple conquest, triumph is his aim.

Prayers and tears have moved me, gifts could never.

Patriots have toiled, and in their country's cause bled nobly.

Ruin from man is most concealed when near.

If rich, they go to enjoy; if poor, to retrench; if sick, to recover; if studious, to learn.

Take the terms the lady made

Ere conscious of the advancing aid.

I will not fight against thee unless compelled.
Whate'er the motive, pleasure is the mark.

This apparent exception, when examined, will be found to confirm the rule.

Thou madest man, he knows not why;

He thinks he was not born to die.

Why am I beaten ? - Dost thou not know? - Nothing, sir, but Shall I tell you why?— Aye, sir, and where

that I am beaten.

fore.

I staggered a few paces, I know not whither.

To dally much with subjects mean and low

Proves that the mind is weak, or makes it so.

It touches you, my lord, as much as me.

They loved him not as a king, but as a party leader.
Beauty's tears are lovelier than her smile.

He looked as though the speed of thought were in his limbs. Kings should groan for such advantages; but we, humbled as we are, should yearn for them.

Grovel in the dust! crouch! wild beast as thou art!

Much as he loved his wealth, he loved his children better. His nose, large as were the others, bore them down into insignificance.

Come, you at least were twenty when you married; that makes you forty.

At thirty, man suspects himself a fool.

Before ten his senses were gone.

Had seen thee sooner, lad, but had to see the hounds kennelled first.

How dost? and how hast been these eighteen months?

Wilt take thy chance with me?

Sure of that? - Very sure.

Short his career, indeed, but ably run.

And what its worth, ask death-beds; they can tell.

How various his employments whom the world calls idle!
His lord's commands he ne'er withstood,

Though small his pleasure to do good.

Why this so rare? Because forgot of all the day of death. And what if I call my servants, and give thee to their charge? What though the places of their rest

No priestly knee hath ever pressed?

Men in their loose unguarded hours they take;

Not that themselves are wise, but others weak.

Not but they thought me worth a ransom, but they were not safe when I was there.

How blessings brighten as they take their flight!
Great God! that such a father should be mine!

O for that warning voice, which he who saw
The Apocalypse heard cry in Heaven aloud!

Alas both for the deed and for the cause!

Phoebus! what a name to fill the speaking trump of future fame!

What a cold-blooded rascal it is!

O that I had her here, to tear her limb-meal!

If the malignant eye of her father had seen them at the moment!

How if I thrust my hand into your breast and tore your heart out?

Up, Guards! and at them!

INDEX.

The references are to paragraphs.