487. As we call a sentence compound when it is made up of two or more co-ordinate clauses, usually connected together by conjunctions (418-19), so we call any member of a sentence or clause a COMPOUND MEMBER or element when it is made up of two or more co-ordinate words (usually bound together by conjunctions).

Thus, we have a compound subject in

friends and foes rushed through together;

a compound predicate adjective in

they were lovely and pleasant in their lives;

a compound prepositional connective in

he was seen both before and after the battle;

a compound adverb-phrase in

he was seen before the battle but not after it; and so on.

We should never think of calling the sentence itself compound because any of its less essential members, any adjunct or modifier either of the subject or of the predicate verb, is compound; nor, in general, if the subject itself is compound; nor even if the predicate-verb is compound, provided the sentence is brief and not complicated, as in

he [went] and I went, and [he came and I] came,

there the words in brackets show what would be added to make the expression complete). But in

I arose, after a long and refreshing sleep, at six o'clock this morning, while the dew was shining on the grass, and, having made my toilet and despatched a hasty breakfast, went out into my orchard to see what damage yesterday's gale might have done to my fruit-trees,

it would doubtless be practically better to regard the omitted subject I as understood before went, and to describe the sentence as compound. The verb, the word of assertion, is the essential element, above all others, of a sentence; and it is perfectly proper to hold that there are as many sentences (or clauses) as there are verbs in anything we say.

488. The co-ordinating conjunction and is used far oftener than all the other conjunctions together in thus compounding the elements of sentences. And so distinctly do we feel that it

binds together into one the words composing a compound ele ment that, as has been seen above (348 c), the verb belonging to a subject so compounded is made plural, as if it had a plural subject.

There are also other ways in which we make by means of and combinations which cannot be taken apart into single clauses: for example,

we thought Tom and Dick and Harry a noisy trio;

three and eighteen make one-and-twenty.

Such combinations with any other conjunction are only rare and irregular. 489. But even the subordinating conjunctions are sometimes used to join a mere word or phrase which represents an abbreviated dependent clause to that on which the clause would depend : thus, it is important if true;

are you mad? if not, speak to me;

though often forbidden, he kept coming;
he fell while bravely defending the flag;

let them, when well again, return to duty:

that is, if it is true; though he was forbidden; when they are well: and so with the rest.

It is only the verb be, the simple copula between a subject and predicate word (353 a), along with a subject which is the same with that of the other clause, that can be left out thus, to abbreviate the expression. And, in all such cases, the fact of an ellipsis, or an omission of what might be and more often is expressed, is much more distinctly present to our minds than when we abbreviate by means of and or or or but and the like.

490. It is by the same simple and obvious kind of abbreviation namely, by leaving out parts of the sentence which are so clearly understood from the connection that it would be mere wasteful repetition to express them that in question and answer a word or two often stands for a whole sentence, short or long.

Thus, if one asks

who broke in through the window, and did all this mischief in the room?

without repeating the whole story of what Jack did. Or, if one

says

you need not expect to see me at school to-morrow,

the return-question

and the answer,

why?

because I am going out of town,

both imply repetitions of the first statement; but these need only to be implied, and not actually made.

So also we very often repeat, in the form of an abbreviated question, a statement just made, in the way of asking for assurance as to the truth of the statement: thus,

so they are off already, are they?

you do not believe it, do you?

we may be sure, may we not, that he will not betray us? In all such cases, if we are to parse the words or clauses, we must supply the ellipsis, or add the expression of the parts which are only understood. The responsives (318),

are originally adverbs, the one meaning certainly' or 'to be sure' (which we often use instead), the other meaning 'not,' and each stands by abbreviation for a sentence in which it had the office of an adverb; but they are now complete answers by themselves, and no longer imply any ellipsis, because we have come to use them only in this way, and never combine them with other words to make complete sentences.

491. By a like desire to avoid unnecessary repetition, we sometimes let a relative word represent alone the whole clause which it would have introduced: thus,

he has been gone all day, no one knows where;

I cannot come, and I will tell you why;

one of you must give way, I do not care which: that is, where he has gone; which gives way: and so on.

We have noticed under Adjectives (203) the frequent and familiar omission of the noun qualified by an adjective, when it is readily to be supplied from the connection.

492. The infinitive or participle of a repeated verb-phrase is very often omitted, and the auxiliary left alone to represent the phrase thus, for example,

I will join them if you will;

he has never seen it, but I have;
do you promise me? I do.

In easy colloquial speech, even a repeated infinitive is represented by its sign to alone: as,

he would not go, though I told him to;
you may stay, if you want to;

but this is not allowed in careful style, nor in writing.

493. To save the burdensome repetition of nouns, we have (33) the pronouns as brief and much-used substitutes. In a similar way, the pronominal adverb so is a very frequent substitute for a word (oftenest an adjective) or phrase or clause used as complement of a verb: thus, for example,

he is either married or going to be so;

I thought that he could be trusted, but I think so no longer; if he is not already tired of waiting for us, this last delay will 'certainly make him so.

And do is an almost equally frequent substitute for a verb that needs to be repeated: thus,

sleep seldom visits sorrow; when it doth, it is a comforter; embrace me, as I do thee;

I love her better than he does.

494. It is because comparison naturally involves parallelism or repetition of expression that the conjunctions of comparison, as and than, and especially as, have come to be followed very frequently by abbreviated and incomplete expression (as already pointed out, 330 d): thus, for example (adding in brackets the words which may be supplied as understood),

she is as good as he [is];

she was as handsome as [she] ever [was];

he put it off as long as [putting it off was] possible;
love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thyself;

I treat him as [I treat] a friend;

I regard it as [I regard a thing] possible.

Starting with such abbreviated constructions as the last two, as has come to be used as a kind of appositive connective, and even to take on the meaning of ' in the light of,' 'in the character of'; so that we make such phrases as

he gained great fame as an orator;

his fame as orator was great;

where it would be by no means easy to fill out the ellipsis in such a way as should give as its proper meaning.

Often, before a conditional clause, a whole clause of comparison, involving a repetition, is omitted after as: thus,

he looks as [he would look]. if he were tired;

I would thank her as [I should thank her] if she had done me a great favor.

This omission is so common, that as if has come to seem to us a compound conjunction or conjunction-phrase of comparison, and we are quite unconscious of the ellipsis really implied in it. As though is used in the same sense; while, if the ellipsis were filled out, though could hardly ever begin the conditional clause.

Even the conditional clause itself may be abbreviated (489), making, for example,

he looks as if tired.

By a kindred abbreviation, we change

into

you must so act as one acts in order to win approbation

you must act so as to win approbation ;

and this has become, its origin being unthought of by us, one of the common constructions of the infinitive (450 b).

Once more, we frequently form sentences like these:

my friends, poor as they are, are above being bought;

all unarmed as he may be, he will disdain to fly;

where the adjectives poor and unarmed are in appositive construction, qualifying the subjects of the independent clauses, friends and he - as if it were being as poor as they actually are, and so on. But such a clause comes to appear to us equivalent to however poor they are, or though they are poor; and then, by analogy with them, we form others which involve marked abbreviations: thus, for example,

poor as they are, you cannot buy them;

valiantly as he may fight, they will beat him;

where an absolute construction is implied: thus,

or, again,

they being as poor as they are; he fighting as valiantly etc.

much as I love you, I love honor more;

where the appositive adjective is omitted: thus,

I, loving you as much as I love you, love honor more.

495. Not only, however, where the completion of the expression would involve an unnecessary and avoidable repetition of something actually said close by, but also where the common