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SCHWARTZ, MAURICE

Maurice Schwartz

brought to the United States in infancy. Schwartz graduated from the New York University College of Dentistry (D.D.S., 1913), and practised dentistry from 1913 on.

He was a member of the Kings County Medical Advisory Board (1917-18) and president of the Kings County Dental Society (1922-23). His writings include: Practical Dental Anatomy and Tooth Carving (1935); Cavity Preparation and Abutment Construction in Bridgework (1936); Modern Methods of Tooth Replacement (1937).

Schwartz also studied art at Cooper Union, New York city, the College of the City of New York and the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn. His works were exhibited by the Dentists' Art Club at the St. George Hotel, Brooklyn (1930). His etching, Eli, Eli, received honorable mention at the New York City Art Center Exhibition (1931).

Schwartz was made a member of the advisory board on industrial education of the New York Board of Education (1935) and of the executive board of the post-graduate dental committee of The Hebrew University, Jerusalem (1936).

SCHWARTZ, LOUIS, public health official, b. New York city, 1883. He received the M.D. degree from the Jefferson Medical College (1905). Schwartz entered the United States Public Health Service in 1906 and was made senior surgeon (1931) and medical director (1937). In 1934 he was appointed lecturer on dermatology at New York University; he was also adjunct professor in dermatology at the Georgetown University School of Medicine.

SCHWARTZ, MAURICE (originally Abraham Moses Schwartz), actor, director and producer, b. Soudilkov, Ukraine, Russia, 1888. He attended an Orthodox Heder and a Russian school up to the age of twelve. He sang in a synagogue choir and gained a reputation as a soloist, and was known as "Moishele, the Alto."

His father, a grain merchant, emigrated to the United States in 1898, and two years later sent steamship tickets to his family. At Liverpool, Maurice, who had grown too

tall for his age, was not permitted to board ship for the United States because his father had sent a child's ticket for him. His mother proceeded with the other children, and left Maurice behind. The steamship company then sent him to London, where he remained for two years virtually a vagrant, working sporadically as a ragpicker's helper and singing in synagogue choirs on holidays. It was in London that he saw his first stage performance, a production of Abraham Goldfaden's operetta Sulamith, and was enchanted by it. His father crossed the ocean in 1902 and brought him to New York city, where he attended a public school, assisted his father in the ragpicking trade, and spent many of his evenings and Sabbath afternoons on the balconies of Yiddish playhouses.

When he was seventeen he joined a dramatic club and was assigned the role of a sixty-year-old man in an amateur performance of a play, The Twentieth Century, by Isidor Zolotarefsky. Leo Largman, manager of a Baltimore Yiddish troupe, in quest of young talent, attended the performance. He was impressed by the seventeen-year-old amateur actor and made him a member of his professional company at a salary of three dollars a week. After two years with the Largman troupe he moved on to other companies in Cincinnati, Chicago and Philadelphia. In the latter city he played lago in Othello with the German Jewish actor Morris Morrison in the title role. Morrison was impressed with the young actor's talents, and prevailed upon David Kessler to engage him for his company at the Brooklyn Lyric Theatre. In 1913 Schwartz took the customary actor's test for membership in the Hebrew Actors' Union, and was voted down by a majority of its members. Indignant, he went to the editorial offices of the Jewish Daily Forward, forced his way into the office of the editor, who was also the newspaper's theatrical critic, and acted out a scene from a play. The newspaper then took up his cause, and as a result he was admitted to union membership. For several years he played under Kessler's tutelage, and in the summer of 1918 he organized his own dramatic company at the Irving Place Theatre. Three years later he moved to the Garden Theatre, a playhouse in the old Madison Square Garden, where he named his company the Yiddish Art Theatre.

As director and producer of the Yiddish Art Theatre company Schwartz presented a varied repertoire of no less than 150 plays, many of them dramatic works of outstanding merit. He produced plays by Shakespeare, Molière, Gogol, Shaw, Romain Rolland, Strindberg, Gorki, Andreyev, Chekhov, Tolstoy, Arthur Schnitzler and Lion Feuchtwanger with varying degrees of artistic success. His most notable achievements, however, were in the field of Jewish drama.

Among his outstanding productions are: folk plays by Perez Hirschbein (A Forsaken Nook; The Blacksmith's Daughters); a cycle of comedies based on the stories by Sholom Aleichem, in the dramatization of J. D. Berkowitz (Tevya, the Dairyman; It's Hard to be a Jew; The Sweepstakes; Sender Blank); the Dybbuk, by S. An-Ski (Solomon Rapoport); a series of plays based on the novels of Sholom Asch, dramatized by Maurice Schwartz (Kiddush Hashem; Uncle Moses; The Witch of Castille; Three Cities; Salvation); the sophisticated comedies of Ossip Dymov (Bread; Human Dust); plays by H. Leivick (Leivick Halper) (Rags: Chains; Who Is Who); plays based on the novels of I. J. Singer (Yoshe Kalb; The Brothers Ashkenazi).

In 1924 Schwartz toured Europe with his Yiddish Art Theatre company. He also appeared in and directed plays in Palestine, Argentina, Brazil, Montevideo and Mexico. He acted in some Yiddish motion pictures, the most noteworthy being Tevya, The Dairy

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man.

As an actor Schwartz excelled in character parts, in

which he displayed a rare versatility and a genuine sense of the humorous without resorting to the banalities of the conventional comedian. As a stage director he achieved a degree of artistic success with experimental productions (Abraham Goldfaden's Ten Commandments; Aaron Zeitlin's Wise Men of Chelm), but his major achievements were in the field of realistic stage presentations. LEON CRYSTAL.

SCHWARTZ, PHILIPP, professor of medicine, b. Vrsač, Yugoslavia, 1894. The son of a businessman, he first studied at the technical school of his native city, but later took up medicine at the University of Budapest. In 1927 he became associate professor at the University of Frankfort, Germany. Ousted by the Nazis in 1933, Schwartz followed a call to Istanbul, Turkey, where he was appointed full professor of pathological anatomy and director of the Pathological Anatomical Institute of the University of Istanbul.

His publications include: Traumatische Schädigung des Zentralnervensystems durch die Geburt (1924); Schlaganfälle (1930); Empfindlichkeit und Schwindsucht (1935).

SCHWARTZ, WILLIAM SAMUEL, artist, b. Smorgon, Russia, 1896. He studied at the Vilna Art School, and emigrated to the United States in 1913, where he continued his education at the Art Institute of Chicago. Schwartz, who was a painter as well as a lithographer and sculptor, held numerous exhibitions throughout the United States. Works of his were acquired by the Universities of Illinois, Missouri, Nebraska and Wisconsin and by the public galleries of Dallas and Cincinnati as well as by the museums of Tel-Aviv, Palestine, and Biro-Bidjan, Soviet Russia.

He was recipient of several prizes, including the First Albert Kahn Prize (Detroit, 1925), the Temple Beth El Sisterhood First Prize (Detroit, 1926), the Marshall Fuller Holmes Prize (Chicago, 1927), and the M. V. Kohnstamm Prize (Chicago, 1928). Among his best known works were Utopia, dedicated to Romain Rolland (Art Institute of Milwaukee), and the canvas Emancipation (revealing Abraham Lincoln robed in a toga and surrounded by Negroes), a prize-winning picture of the thirty-eighth annual exhibition at Chicago. The Bulletin of the Art Institute of Chicago (1941) praised the "very personal style of his later paintings" which "retain the rhythmic design and vibrant color which characterized his earlier and more abstract paintings." SCHWARZ, ADOLF, rabbi, scholar and educator, b. Adász-Tevel, Hungary, 1846; d. Vienna, 1931. He was educated at the Breslau rabbinical seminary and the University of Vienna. Having served as chief rabbi at Karlsruhe, Germany, from 1875 to 1893, he was called to the Vienna Israelitisch-Theologische Lehranstalt as its first dean, and remained in this office to the end of his life. In Karlsruhe Schwarz devoted himself to research on the Tosefta.

He published: Die Tosifta der Ordnung Moed. I. Der Tractat Sabbath (1879); II. Der Tractat Erubin (1882); Tosifta juxta Mischnarum Ordinum Recomposita et Commentario instructa. I. Seraim. II. Chulin. (1890-1902). During his Vienna period he concerned himself mostly with hermeneutics, publishing Die hermeneutische Analogie in der talmudischen Literatur (1897); Der hermeneutische Syllogismus in der talmudischen Literatur (1901); and Die hermeneutische Induktion in der talmudischen Literatur (1909). Other works of his are Die Kontroverse der Schammaiten und Hilleliten (1893) and Die Mischnch-Thora (1905).

Jubilee volumes were published in honor of his seventieth (1917) and eightieth (1927) birthdays, the latter entirely in Hebrew. The Austrian state conferred upon him the title of Hofrat (Court Councillor).

ARTHUR ZACHARIAS SCHWARZ (b. Karlsruhe, Germany, 1880; d. Jerusalem, 1939) was a son of Adolf Schwarz. He was educated at the University of Vienna. He de

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scribed many rare Hebrew manuscripts in Austrian libraries.

Among these illuminating studies were Die hebräischen Handschriften der K. K. Hofbibliothek zu Wien (1914), listing the manuscripts acquired from 1851 on; Die hebräischen Handschriften der Nationalbibliothek in Wien (1925); Die hebräischen Handschriften in Österreich ausserhalb der Nationalbibliothek Wien (part 1, dealing with Bible and Cabala, 1931). He was also editor of the jubilee volume published in memory of Hirsch Perez Chajes (1930).

SCHWARZ, DAVID, inventor in the field of aviation, b. Kesthely, Hungary, 1845; d. Vienna, 1897. Schwarz, who was living in Zagreb, Croatia, and was by profession a lumber merchant, began the study of aviation in his later years by himself and became the actual inventor of the rigid airship. The Austrian war ministry disapproved of his technical project, whereupon he went to Russia, became a Russian government engineer in St. Petersburg, and there built his first airship in 1892. It had an aluminum framework and a balloon covering. Unfortunately, the material furnished by the Russian government was so inferior that it was impossible to fill the balloon with gas.

Schwarz then turned to the German government, which was in favor of his project to build an aluminum balloon eighty meters in length and twelve in diameter. He was promised 300,000 marks for the undertaking in the event that he succeeded. On January 13, 1897, a telegram summoned him to Berlin to be present at the test flight, but just as the telegram was handed to him on the street in Vienna he died of a heart attack. His widow, Melanie Schwarz, took charge of the preparations for the ascent which was made on November 3, 1897, from Tempelhof Field, near Berlin, in the presence of a number of spectators, including Count Zeppelin. The flight of the airship was successful, but its unskilled pilot brought it to the ground with such violence that it was smashed to pieces. Although Zeppelin, in applying for his patent in 1894 to 1895, did not mention the work of Schwarz, experts have regarded it obvious that in the rigid airship which he built he made use, for the most part, of the method which Schwarz had previously adopted.

On February 10, 1898, a contract was drawn up between Schwarz' widow, Councillor Berg, of Stuttgart, and Count Zeppelin. This contract gave to Berg the right to exploit in Germany "those inventions, whether patented or not, which belonged to Schwarz and his heirs," and Zeppelin received the right to Schwarz' "inventions and experiments" in return for compensating the heirs of the inventor. Although Zeppelin, in a letter to Maximilian Harden (editor of Die Zukunft) in 1911, denied that he had used the discoveries of Schwarz in building his own airship, it is clearly established that priority in the discovery of the rigid airship belongs to David Schwarz.

His daughter, Vera Schwarz, was an opera singer, who for a time appeared in the United States.

HANS MÜHSAM.

Lit.: Berg, Carl, David Schwarz, Carl Berg, Graf Zeppelin. Ein Beitrag zur Entstehung der Zeppelin-Luftschiffahrt in Deutschland; Heppner, Ernst, Juden als Erfinder und Entdecker (1913) 55-58; Roth, Cecil, The Jewish Contribution to Civilisation (1938) 181.

SCHWARZ, EDE, physician and anthropologist, b. Miskolc, Hungary, 1831; d. Vienna, 1862. After having fought in the Hungarian revolutionary war (1848-49), where he distinguished himself in battle, he studied medicine at the University of Vienna, and received the M.D. degree in 1856. He took part in the expedition around the world of the Austrian steam frigate Novara, from 1857 to 1859.

Schwarz published his notes on that expedition in the volumes Über Körpermessungen zur Diagnostik der Menschenrassen (1859); Chinesische Ärzte und Medika

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mente (1859); Die Nahrungsmittel der Tahiter; Reise der österreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857-59 (1861); and System of Anthropological Investigations (1862). Schwarz' grave in the Jewish cemetery of Vienna was adorned by a monument from the hand of the Austrian sculptor Hieser.

SCHWARZ, JOSEPH, geographer, b. Floss, Upper Palatinate, Germany, 1804; d. Jerusalem, 1865. He published a Hebrew map of Palestine in 1829. In order to pursue researches in the Holy Land he settled in Jerusalem in 1833. During the many years of his sojourn in Palestine, Schwarz wandered all over the country in Eastern garb, and did outstanding research in the geology and geography of the country, also on its animals and plants.

The results of these studies were published in his Dibre Yosef (4 vols.). He published a calendar (1843) in which he set down the exact time of sunrise and sunset as observed personally on Mount Scopus. In the same year he published the first volume of his work Tebuoth Hashemesh, on the physical geography of Palestine. The second volume, Tebuoth Haaretz (1845), deals with the geography, geology and chronology of the Holy Land. The two remaining volumes, Peri Tebuah and Shoshannath Haemek, appeared in 1861 to 1862.

Schwarz was recognized as an authority in his field and was called the second Estori Hafarhi. Joseph Kohen-Zedek of Lemberg published an edition of his works in 1865, and in 1900 Abraham Moses Luncz of Jerusalem also published an edition, with an extensive biography.

Lit.: Otzar Yisrael; Zitron, S. L., Lexikon Zioni (1924); Luncz, Einleitung zu Schwarz' Werken.

SCHWARZ, KARL, art historian and museum director, b. 1885. He lived and worked in Berlin, first as writer and critic, and after 1928 as director of the art rooms of the Jüdische Gemeinde (Albert Wolff collection). By establishing the Jüdischer Museums-Verein (1929) and by the subsequent removal (1933) of the rich collection to suitable quarters, Schwarz contributed to the advancement of Jewish art in Germany as a whole. During the summer of 1933 Schwarz went to Tel-Aviv, Palestine, where he directed the opening of a museum on Rothschild Boulevard containing the art collection accumulated by Mayor Meyer Dizengoff. Schwarz made the museum an intellectual and cultural center of significance for all Palestine, offering a survey of international creative art as well as of Jewish art. Exhibitions, lectures and a large art library completed the activities.

In 1911 Schwarz (collaborating with Arnold Fortlags) issued Das graphische Werk von Herman Houck; in 1920 he published several volumes of Jüdische Bücherei. His Die Juden in der Kunst (1928) was reprinted in 1928 in Jerusalem, and his Modern Jewish Artists in Palestine (1941), with biographical text in English and Hebrew, is an important source book.

SCHWARZ, LEON, see MOBILE.

SCHWARZ, SAMUEL, mining engineer and historian, b. Poland, 1880. In 1915 he settled at Lisbon, Portugal, as a mining engineer, and performed meritorious service for Portuguese economics by exploring the geological conditions of the country. In 1917, on a business visit to Belmont, a somewhat inaccessible spot in the north of Portugal near the Spanish frontier, he discovered the existence of Marranos who (unbeknown to the Catholic Church, to which they formally adhered) continued to observe the Jewish Law throughout the centuries subsequent to the abolition of the Inquisition, absolutely isolated from the general Jewish world. Schwarz gained the confidence of these Mar

ranos, assisted their secret divine service, and was given a collection of manuscripts of prayers which he completed by recording their oral traditions. The discovery of Marranos who had remained in Portugal and Spain for centuries was an important one. About 10,000 families of Crypto-Jews were thus discovered to be in need of assistance on the part of the Jews of the other countries. They afforded intensely interesting information respecting Jewish history.

The British historian Lucien Wolf made an expedition to the area where the Marranos are settled in order to organize help and studies. Schwarz, a passionate student of Jewish history, described his discovery in Os Christãos-Nosos em Portgual no seculo XX (1925). Previously he edited a collection of Hebrew inscriptions in Portugal, mainly of the 13th and 14th centuries, Inscricoves hebraicas em Portugal (1923). Schwarz was an associate member of the Archeological Society of Portugal.

SCHWARZBART, IZAK IGNACY, Polish government official, b. Chrzanow, near Cracow, Western Galicia, 1888. He attended Heder and also received a secular education. Later (1913) he received his law degree from Jagiellon University in Cracow, and estab lished himself in the practice of law in Cracow. After the restoration of Poland he entered the Polish army (1918), but was demobilized at the end of the year for having inscribed himself as being of Jewish nationality. Reentering the practice of law, Schwarzbart eventually opened his own office in Cracow in 1922.

Schwarzbart's participation in Jewish communal life had begun early, although it had been preceded (1904) by his entry into socialist activities. Before long, however, his interest was directed toward the Zionist Movement; in 1911 he was elected president of the Hashahar, the Association.of Zionist Academic Youth. At the end of the first World War he became general secretary of the newly-formed regional Zionist organization of Western Galicia and Silesia. In 1919 Schwarzbart participated also in the formation of the Jewish National Council under Osias Thon.

Schwarzbart struggled consistently for coordination among the various segments of the Jewish population, within and without the Zionist circle. He was responsible (1938) for the formation of a coordination committee of all Zionist groups in Western Galicia and Silesia. In 1933 he was made a member of the Actions Committee of the World Zionist Organization. Later he was a member of the Administrative Committee of the World Jewish Congress. As early as 1921 he was the editor of the first Zionist daily in Galicia, Nowy Dziennik, and he wrote for numerous other periodicals and newspapers in Poland and elsewhere.

On being elected to the Polish Sejm in 1939, Schwarz

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Izak Ignacy Schwarzbart

bart won 94 per cent of the Jewish votes in Cracow. He was a member of the Town Council of Cracow, and chairman of the Club of Jewish Councillors. He was also a member of the Council of Polish Jews of Cracow. Caught between Warsaw and Cracow at the outbreak of the second World War, he escaped to Roumania where, until 1940, he aided in caring for Polish refugees and also in the transportation of Polish and Roumanian Jews to Palestine. In 1940 the Sikorski Government-in-Exile made Schwarzbart a member of the first National Council, and he went to Paris to join it. From the very beginning of his service here he was unflinching in his resistance to the anti-democratic and anti-Semitic taints occasionally shown by some divisions of the Polish government. Made a member of the Second National Council, he subsequently moved with the Government to London, after the downfall of France, and here again fought the shadows of discriminatory attitudes which had been transported from the original Warsaw scene by certain Polish leaders.

Schwarzbart was instrumental in eliciting, from the Government-in-Exile, a statement promising equal rights (1941), and in 1942 he tried to put through a four-point program on Polish-Jewish relations declaring still more plainly that all past discriminations and confiscations in regard to the Jews were null and void, evacuations and coerced emigration forbidden and full minority rights assured. This program was rejected, in view of the earlier statement of principles. Schwarzbart brought out numerous facts about the German mass-murder of Jews. He was president of the Council of Zionists from the Continent. In 1943 he was named rapporteur general on the budget of the Polish government-in-exile.

JOSEPH THON.

SCHWARZFELD, a family of authors and histo

rians.

ELIAS SCHWARZFELD (b. Jassy, Roumania, 1855; d. Paris, 1915) began his career as a journalist in the Jewish press of Jassy, where he founded (1874) the magazine Revista Israelitica. From 1877 to 1878 he edited Jüdischer Telegraf, a daily, and when this ceased publication, Hayoetz, a weekly, both in the Yiddish language. In 1881, after returning from the University of Brussels with the degree of doctor of law (LL.D.), he was called to the post of the chief editor of the Jewish weekly newspaper Fraternitatea (Brotherhood), which under his direction became a militant publica

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tion of high political and cultural standards. Because of his ceaseless attacks on the anti-Semitic policy of the government he was expelled from Roumania in 1885, together with Moses Gaster and other Jewish writers. He settled at Paris where, in the following year, he was appointed private secretary of the philanthropic department of the Baron de Hirsch Foundation, and when the Jewish Colonization Association was founded, he became its general secretary.

His studies on the history of the Jews in Roumania, contributed to the year book Anuarul pentru Israeliti, founded by his brother Moses in 1877, form an invaluable reference source.

He was also co-editor of Egalitatea, founded by Moses Schwarzfeld at Bucharest (1890). Under the assumed name of Edmond Sincerus he edited Les Juifs de Roumanie depuis le traité de Berlin (1901). Schwarzfeld's most important study is Impopularea, reimpopularea si intermeerea targurilor si a targusoarelor in Moldova (Populating and Founding Little and Market Towns in Moldavia; 1914). By means of a critical analysis of documents, in many cases first published by him, he disproved the current anti-Semitic thesis that the Jews had but recently "invaded" Roumania, and showed that they were of long standing in that country. In the Anuarul he published also short stories dealing with Jewish life and selected translations from such authors as Ludwig Philippson, Julius Barasch and Ernest Renan. He also wrote a number of novels many of which were translated into Hebrew. They include: Rabinul Facator de Minuni (1883); Bercu Batlen (1890); Unchiul Berisch; Un Vagabond; Schimschele Ghibor.

MOSES SCHWARZFELD (b. Jassy, 1857) founded the Anuarul pentrue Israeliti (Year Book for Jews, 187798), the first issue of which was called Calendarul pentru Israeliti. In addition to himself and his brother Elias, the most distinguished Roumanian Jewish authors contributed to this year book, which is an indispensable source for the history, folklore and cultural life of the Jews in Roumania. The year books of the Julius Barasch historical society, Analele Societatea Istorice Iuliu Barasch, founded by him, were devoted solely to the history of the Jews in Roumania. Moses Schwarzfeld also wrote for Fraternitatea under the pen name of Ploestanu. His most significant contribution to Jewish endeavor in Roumania was the weekly Egalitatea, which he founded in 1890 and which reflects all Jewish life in Roumania during the half-century from 1890 to 1940. He was active also in the Zionist Movement and in the movement for emancipation. On his eightieth birthday (1937) the Jews of Roumania tendered a national gift to him.

His published books include: Cilibi Moise (the biography and literary remains of Moses Cilibi; 1883); Cercetari critice despre istoria Evreilor (Critical Researches in Jewish History; 1888); Cantece populare (Popular Songs; 1886); Vasile Alexandri sau mesterul drege-strica (Vasile Alexandri or the Muddle-Master); Dr. Iuliu Barasch (1919).

WILHELM SCHWARZFELD (b. Jassy, 1856; d. Bucharest, 1894), historian and philologist, was a brother of Elias and Moses Schwarzfeld. He was educated at Jassy and at Bucharest. He contributed many articles to the Roumanian Jewish press and especially to the Anuarul pentru Israeliti. Among his memoranda of greatest interest are that on Jewish scholars and authors of Jassy, based on the tombstone inscriptions in the Jassy cemetery and that on the Jews of Moldavia who embraced Christianity. He published also studies in Hebrew grammar and a work on synonyms and the law of evolution. SANIEL LABIN. SCHWARZSCHILD, KARL, astronomer and mathematician, b. Frankfort, Germany, 1873; d. 1916. He started lecturing at the University of Munich in 1899, became director of the observatory and professor at the University at Göttingen in 1901, and in 1909 was

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appointed director of the astro-physical observatory near Potsdam. Schwarzschild invented an instrument for the actinometric photography of stars and a Zenith camera for topography.

His published works include: Das zulässige Krümmungsmass des Raumes (1900); Untersuchungen zur geometrischen Optik (3 parts, 1905); Über die Eigenbewegungen der Fixsterne (1908); Tafeln zur astronomischen Ortsbestimmung (together with Bick; 1909). His articles, appearing mainly in the publications of the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin (of which he was a member), dealt with such subjects as Einstein's theory of relativity, especially with the structure of space and gravitation. Schwarzschild renounced Judaism.

Lit.: Müller, G., Astronomische Nachrichten, vol. 202 (1916); Eddington, Monthly Notices, vol. 77 (1917).

SCHWARZSCHILD, LEOPOLD, journalist, editor and author, b. Frankfort, Germany, 1891. In his early childhood he displayed great musical talent, and at the age of nine he was considered a promising musical prodigy. But, although he remained a good piano player, he became more and more interested in politics. During the first World War Schwarzschild attracted attention by his articles published in the Europäische Staats- und Wirtschaftszeitung professing opposition to militarism and nationalism. After the War he contributed to Austrian and Swiss newspapers, and in 1924 he became chief editor of the weekly Das Tagebuch. In the same year he published a dramatic piece, Der Sumpf.

Directing Das Tagebuch, Schwarzschild conducted several campaigns against the German military circles whose members became influential especially after Paul von Hindenburg was elected president of the Reich. Schwarzschild, who had severely criticized Friedrich Ebert, first president of the Reich, because, according to him, Ebert bargained too much with the adversaries of the republic, became more and more hated by the German nationalists, especially because of his campaign against the public prosecutor Joerns, whom he accused of complicity in the murder of Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. Schwarzschild denounced also all attempts made by German army officer industrialists and public servants to elude the obligations of the Treaty of Versailles.

Thus he was particularly menaced when the Nazis came to power. He emigrated to Paris, and published there, in German and English, Das Ende der Illusionen (1934), a balance of the history of the preceding years. From 1934 to 1940 Schwarzschild edited in Paris the weekly Das Neue Tagebuch, the foremost anti-Hitlerian periodical published in German. Well informed about the secrets of the Nazi regime, he refuted many official statements of the Third Reich, especially those of the German ministers of finance and economy, and denounced German rearmament.

Occasionally Schwarzschild was provided with information by high German officials who were opposed to Hitler and tried to counteract him, but mostly he got his results by critically examining German statistics of all kinds and contrasting them with the measures taken by the Nazi government and the fallacious speeches of Hitler and his lieutenants who were eager to appease the governments of the other countries. It was a hint published by Schwarzschild, not heeded early enough by the Allied military commanders and diplomats, which caused the German high command to hasten the occupation of Norway and to invade that country some days earlier than the German timetable had provided for, lest the Allied powers take their counter

measures.

In 1940 Schwarzschild went to the United States, and in 1942 he published World in Trance, a critical survey of the events between the two World Wars and a denun

ciation of the unreadiness of the leading statesmen of the formerly allied powers to face the facts of German preparations for war.

SCHWEID, MARK, actor and writer, b. Warsaw, Poland, 1891. He graduated from the Warsaw Dramatic Academy, and later played on the Polish stage. In 1911 he came to the United States, where he was associated with various Yiddish theatres, not only as actor, but also in a directive capacity. Schweid made his first appearance on the English stage in 1926, and subsequently appeared in productions of the Theatre Guild, the Boston Repertory Theatre and in other plays, including The Eternal Road. He also engaged in radio productions, directing the Israel in American History series over WEVD (1935-36) and in 1942 playing in You Can't Do Business with Hitler.

Schweid's first poems were published in 1909. He was the author of Burshtinene Shisslen (1921); Tzu Gott un izu Leit (1926); Ch'vel Machen Tay (1927); Dos Folk fun'm Safer (1930); and Un Ich Red Prost (1935). He also wrote for Yiddish periodicals and magazines, under his own name and as M. Daner, D. Tamarin, O. Kama and other pseudonyms. Schweid was for a time president of the Hebrew Actors Union. During the first World War he served as recruiting officer for the British Military Mission in the United States.

SCHWEIGER, LÁZÁR, rabbi and ethnologist, b. Nagytapolcsány, Hungary, 1872. After receiving a thorough Talmudic training in Hungary, he studied in the Universities of Frankfort and Bern. From 1904 to 1929 he served as rabbi at Eger, Hungary; in 1929 he was called to Nitra, Slovakia. About his whereabouts in 1943 nothing was known. Schweiger was a distinguished ethnologist and ethnopsychologist.

Among his published works, many of which appeared originally in Hungarian, were: Das Gesetz der grossen Zahl (1904); Die logischen Methoden der Ethnologie (1909); Die Anknüpfungspunkte der Kunst und Ethnographie (1910); Die Religion im Lichte der Völkerpsychologie (1911); Moritz Lazarus (1911); Der Neodarwinismus (1912).

JEANETTE,

SCHWERIN ABARBANELL, communal worker and author, b. Berlin, 1852; d. Berlin, 1899. She was one of the founders of the German Society of Ethical Culture, which led the struggle against intolerance and materialism, and published the Auskunftsbuch über die Wohlfahrtseinrichtungen Berlins, giving information on public relief and welfare in Berlin. She was instrumental also in the establishment of the first public reading room, sponsored by the ethical society. It greatly influenced the movement for popular education in Germany. In 1893 she and some friends founded the Mädchen- und Frauengruppen für Sociale Hilfsarbeit, groups of women and young girls banded together for the performance of social service work in Berlin. Another foundation of hers was the home nursing association (Hauspflegeverein), which procured aid for sick women. She was active also as a feminist.

Lit.: Lange, Helene, Foerster, Friedrich Wilhelm, and Salomon, Alice, Jeanette Schwerin zum Gedächtnis (1899); Harder, Agnes V., edit., Bahnbrechende Frauen (1912); Handbuch der Frauenbewegung (1901).

SCHWIMMER, ERNÖ, dermatologist, b. Pest (Budapest), Hungary, 1837; d. Budapest, 1898. After graduating from medical school at Vienna and studying dermatology in Viennese clinics and in Egypt, he became a pioneer in the specialized care of infections of the skin in Hungary. He met with much indifference and had to set an example to health authorities by opening a dermatological dispensary at his own expense in Pest. In 1870 Schwimmer was allowed to lec

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