of the City of New York (B.A., 1885) and then went abroad to study at the University of Berlin and at the Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums, at which latter institution he took all the courses for the rabbinate. He then served in the pulpits of Congregations Shalom, New York city (1889-1890), EmanuEl, Helena, Mont. (1890-93), and B'nai Jehudah, Kansas City, Mo. (1893-99). In 1899 he became co-Rabbi of Kaufmann Kohler at Temple Beth-El, New York city; when Kohler was called to the presidency of the Hebrew Union College in 1903, Schulman succeeded him in the Beth-El pulpit. He soon became known as one of the outstanding pulpit orators of the metropolis. In 1927, when Temple Beth-El was consolidated with Temple Emanu-El, he became rabbi of the newly created Congregation Emanu-El; in 1934 he was made rabbi emeritus.

During his career Schulman took a leading part in many movements, both in New York city and in the country at large. He was for a number of years chairman of the inter-faith committee of the New York Board of Jewish Ministers. He was director and vice-president of the Young Men's Hebrew Association of New York city for over a generation, and chairman of its committee on education for seven years. He was extremely active in the Central Conference of American Rabbis, serving as its president from 1911 to 1913 (honorary president, 1934) and on numerous committees. He was one of the three members of the Conference chosen to become editors of the Bible translation made under the auspices of the Jewish Publication Society of America, and served for seven years until the completion of the work in 1916. He was a member of the Publication Committee of the Jewish Publication Society for over thirty years, and was a member of the board of editors of the Jewish Classics published by the society. From 1927 to 1940 he was a member of the Commission on Jewish Education of the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, serving during that entire period as chairman of the committee on youth education, and furnishing the initiative for the nation-wide organization of Reform Jewish youth which was finally effected in 1939. He was a member of the American Jewish Committee. He became a member of the Synagogue Council of America at its inception, and served as its president in 1934 to 1935. He was president of the Association of Reform Rabbis of Greater New York and Vicinity, which he helped found, from 1921 to 1926; he brought about the creation of the Hebrew Union College School for Teachers in New York city, and was chairman of the school's board of governors during the nine years of its existence. He was one of the organizers of the World Union for Progressive Judaism in 1926.

Schulman's writings, sermons and pronouncements are based on a thorough and systematic theology of the Reform Movement, particularly in America. As early as 1909 he had called attention to the Midrashic term Keneseth Israel, "community of Israel," which described the Jewish people as a religious organization rather than a nation after the loss of its political independence. Judaism thus became a religious community, based on the Torah, "law demanding obedience." Accordingly, he energetically opposed mixed marriages as tending to disintegrate the religion of Israel. The essential part of the Torah was the moral law as developed by the prophets; the ceremonial law, which should always be adaptable to new circumstances, is valuable as the symbol of the moral law. He rejected the idea of a specifically Jewish civilization, maintaining that Israel had always participated

in and contributed to the civilization of the nations, and that its specific contribution of Jewish values was not based on blood but on genius as inspired by God.

He opposed Jewish nationalism as the negation of the traditional principles of Judaism; he defined the difference between his concept of Judaism and that of the nationalists by saying that the Reform Jews wish to be bagoyim, "in the midst of the nations," while the nationalists wish to be kagoyim, "like the nations." He energetically opposed the ideology of the Zionist Movement, yet took a great interest in the Jewish settlement in Palestine, making visits to that country in 1926 and 1935, and becoming a non-Zionist member of the Jewish Agency in 1929. He hailed the United States as the first nation that had deliberately organized itself on the basis of human rights and the dignity of the human spirit rather than on blood or national descent, and as the beginning of a new order of government based on the ideals of the prophets. He was the first to use the term "melting pot" (later popularized by Israel Zangwill) as a symbol for America, in a sermon delivered on March 30, 1907.

Schulman drew up a statement embodying these principles in 1935, as the enunciation of the platform of the Central Conference of American Rabbis on the fiftieth anniversary of the Pittsburgh Platform. It was noteworthy for its rejection of belief in a personal Messiah and its insistence on moral authority in Judaism. Due to his illness, this platform was not acted upon, but, by a decision of the executive board, it was ordered printed in the Year Book of the Conference side by side with the platform officially adopted-an unprecedented distinction.

Schulman wrote no large works, but contributed to the work of tract commissions and to scholarly and religious periodicals; many of his sermons were issued in pamphlet form. Among these are: Jewish Ethics, one of the clearest and most compact presentations of this subject; "Israel," Central Conference of American Rabbis Year Book (1935); reviews of Houston Stewart Chamberlain's Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (Jewish Quarterly Review, New Series, vol. 5, 1914, No. 2) and George Foot Moore's Judaism (ibid., vol. 18, 1928, No. 4); "Why American Jews are Opposed to Zionism," Outlook, Jan. 5, 1916; "The

SCHUR

Searching of the Jewish Heart," Menorah Journal, April, 1918; "Mission of Israel," ibid., Aug.-Sept., 1924; "A Basis for a Union in Israel; Essentials of the Jewish Problem," Contemporary Jewish Record, Oct., 1942, in which he challenged both Jews and Christians to recognize the true spiritual nature of Judaism and its right to exist; a pamphlet on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur for the Jewish Publication Society; The Fundamentals of Judaism as a Religion for the World; Christendom's Jewish Heritage; Our America; Judaism, Jesus and the Decadence in the Reform Jewish Pulpit; The Realness of the God of the Old Testament; The Fundamentals of the Jewish Ministry; the articles "Calumny" and "Cardinal Virtues" for the Jewish Encyclopedia, and "Kaufmann Kohler" for the Universal Jewish Encyclopedia.

He received honorary degrees from the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (D.D., 1904) and from the Hebrew Union College (D.H.L., 1925). He served as president of the Associate Alumni of the College of the City of New York from 1930 to 1932. Congregation Emanu-El gave him a testimonial dinner to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of his rabbinate in 1939. SIMON COHEN.

Lit.: The year books of the Central Conference of American Rabbis, especially vol. 19 (1909); vol. 22 (1912); vol. 30 (1920); vol. 45 (1935); the publications cited in the article.

SCHULMANN, ELEAZAR, Hebrew author, b. Krettingen, province of Kovno, Lithuania, 1837; d. Kiev, Russia, 1904. His first work, Haobedim Vehaniddahim (The Lost and the Exiled; Odessa, 1886), treating of the wretched lot and life of the Jews in Russia, and which, patterned after Victor Hugo's great masterpiece Les Misérables, he began to publish at Odessa in 1867 in Perez Smolenskin's Hashahar, was not well received by the critics.

For this reason, Schulmann burned that part of the manuscript which remained unpublished. Later he published in both Hashahar and Hamelitz several belletristic works which later appeared in book form under the title of Otzar Sippurim (Treasurehouse of Stories; 1894; 2nd ed., 1902). Of greater importance was his Mimekor Yisrael (From the Sources of Israel), containing exhaustive biographies of Heinrich Heine and Karl Ludwig Börne (part 1, dealing with the life and works of Heine, 1876; part 2, on the life and works of Börne, 1894).

Schulmann devoted the last fifteen years of his life to a study of Yiddish language and literature. He published various scientific articles on this subject in Hebrew and Yiddish periodicals. His main work, a history of Yiddish literature from the 15th to the end of the 18th centuries, was published at Riga (1913) under the title of Sefath Yehudith-Ashkenazith Vesifruthah; parts of it had appeared first in Yiddish in the Yiddishe Folksbibliothek (vol. 2, 1889), and then in Hazeman.

SCHULTE, DAVID A., merchant and realtor, B. Thomasville, Ga., 1873. He attended school in Newark, N. J. Schulte obtained his first job in a Sixth Avenue dry goods store at $5.00 per week. He was then fifteen. Subsequently he became the partner of Anthony Schulte, his brother-in-law. In his spare time Schulte would walk around the city appraising sites as profitable locations for cigar stores. Two years after entering into partnership he became owner; at that time the business represented sales of $300,000 a year and five stores. Schulte then proceeded to realize his conception of the chain store idea. By 1925 he had 320 stores operating under his name in all parts of the country, doing approximately $30,000,000 worth of business a year. In addition, he owned three cigar factories and, as president, controlled Dunhill's, the famous London tobacconists, in London, New York and Canada.

During the period between 1925 and 1929 Schulte em

barked upon a great scheme of expansion. Not only did he branch out into the cigar and general tobacco business, but also entered the real estate field. The Schulte Realty Company was set up to manage his many properties. In 1926 he acquired an interest in the Yellow Taxi Corporation, and in 1928 was elected president of the Park and Tilford Stores. He formed Huylers' Luncheonettes, Inc., in 1929, and in the same year severed connections with some of his subsidiaries, the Union Tobacco Company, Webster Eisenlohe and Union Cigar, and also with Vadsco Sales Corporation. In 1933 Schulte was elected chairman of Dunhill's.

When the N. R. A. was instituted (1933), Schulte lent all his efforts toward its support; in 1935 he conferred with President Franklin D. Roosevelt in regard to the improvement of the credit situation among small merchants. Schulte was active in philanthropic work, liberally aiding general and Jewish charities and hospitals in New York.

Lit.: New York Times, May 10, 1925; Jewish Tribune, Nov. 7, 1924; issues of the New York Times, 1926 to 1936. SCHULTZ, HENRY, economist, b. Russia, 1893. He was brought to the United States at the age of fourteen. A graduate of the College of the City of New York, he served with the 316th Machine Gun Battalion in the Meuse-Argonne offensive, and was discharged with the rank of sergeant. He then studied during 1919 at the London School of Economics and at the Galton Laboratories of Eugenic Research in London. After an appointment as statistician for the Bureau of the Census (1919-20), he served with the Institute of Economy (1922-24) and directed statistical research in the United States Children's Bureau (1924-26).

In 1925 Columbia University conferred upon him the Ph.D. degree. The following year he became professor of economics at the University of Chicago. From 1933 to 1934 he was a Guggenheim fellow. He was a fellow and for a time vice-president of the American Statistical Association.

SCHUMAN, WILLIAM HOWARD, composer, b. New York city, 1910. He studied music privately with Max Persin, Charles Haubiel, and Roy Harris, following which he attended the Salzburg Mozarteum. In Salzburg he wrote his first symphony, which was performed in New York city and in Pueblo, Col. His second symphony, introduced by the Boston Symphony Orchestra under Koussevitzky, and a secular cantata, This Is Our Time, performed at the Lewisohn Stadium, focused the attention of the music world on his gifts as composer. The performance of his third symphony, by the Boston Symphony Orchestra under Koussevitzky, placed him in the front rank of younger American composers. In 1942 it was singled out by the Music Critics Circle of New York as the outstanding new American work of the year. In 1942 a fourth symphony was introduced by the Philadelphia Orchestra under Ormandy. In 1935 Schuman joined the faculty of the Sarah Lawrence College (Bronxville, N. Y.), where he taught music classes and directed a chorus (1943). He was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1939.

SCHUR, ISSAI, mathematician, b. Mohilev, Russia, 1875; d. Tel-Aviv, Palestine, 1941. In 1903 he became lecturer at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin-Charlottenburg, from 1913 to 1916 he was professor at the University of Bonn, and from 1916 to 1935 assistant and then associate professor at the University of Berlin. He was the last Jewish professor forced to leave his chair. Schur then went to Palestine, where he taught at the Hebrew University, Jerusalem, until his death. Professor Michael Fekete, dean of the science faculty, declared in his eulogy that "had he lived to complete his book, he would have revolutionized mathematics." Schur's importance is evident, among other reasons, from the fact that he was a member of the Prussian

Academy of Sciences from 1921 on, editor of the Mathematische Zeitschrift, and from 1932 to 1935 co-editor of Schriften des mathematischen Seminars und des Instituts für angewandte Mathematik, both in Berlin. His numerous contributions dealt mainly with problems of the Gruppentheorie, Zahlentheorie and Funktionentheorie. He published his first essay at Berlin in 1901, under the title of Über eine Klasse von Matrizen, die sich einer geordneten Matrix zuordnen lassen.

SCHÜRER, EMIL, Protestant theologian, b. Augsburg, Germany, 1844; d. Göttingen, Germany, 1910. He was professor of theology at the Universities of Leipzig, Giessen, Kiel and Göttingen. His most important work is Geschichte des jüdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi (3 vols., 1898-1901; 4th ed. 1901-9). It was translated into English under the title of A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (5 vols., Edinburgh, 1890-1901).

Although his books are of great scholarly value, they show a lack of objectivity in regard to certain phases of the Jewish religion, especially the religion of the Pharisees. Together with Adolf von Harnack, Schürer published the Theologische Literaturzeitung (1881-87).

Lit.: Harnack, Adolf von, Theologische Literaturzeitung, May 14, 1910.

SCHUSTER, a Jewish family whose beginnings have been traced back to 1607. In the same year Elias Ettingen settled in Frankfort, Germany. It was probably his son, JACOB ETTINGEN SCHUSTER, who died at Frankfort in 1697 and was described as "the man of rich knowledge whose name is known everywhere." In 1748 MOSES MAX SCHUSTER was employed by the prince of Thurn and Taxis, who then held the monopoly of the postal services in Germany. By 1750 JUDAH JOSEPH SCHUSTER started at Frankfort a cotton goods business, trading principally with England. He died in 1782, and his son, SAMUEL JUDAH SCHUSTER, CONtinued the business, enlarging his commercial connexions with England. When Napoleon occupied Frankfort (1808) he confiscated the property of the Schuster family because they violated the continental system, established in 1806 by the emperor. As a consequence, JOSEPH SAMUEL SCHUSTER (b. Frankfort, 1785; d. Frankfort, 1858) and his brothers made up their mind to leave Germany for England. The liquidation of the business at Frankfort, however, consumed considerable time, so that Joseph Samuel Schuster remained in his native town and, after Napoleon's defeat, dropped his plan to emigrate. His younger brothers, LEO SCHUSTER and SAMUEL SCHUSTER, settled in Manchester, and went to London later on. The youngest of the brothers, HENRY SCHUSTER, emigrated to Brussels; his only son, LOUIS SCHUSTER, went to England. FRANCIS JOSEPH SCHUSTER (b. Frankfort, 1823; d. London, 1906), the son of Joseph Samuel Schuster, was director of the Municipal Bank of Frankfort, and owned or directed several important commercial and financial enterprises. He was a generally respected citizen of Frankfort, devoted to the maintenance of the independence of the free imperial city. When the Prussian army occupied Frankfort (1866) and the city was annexed by the king of Prussia, Schuster decided to transfer his business to Manchester in order to escape Prussian nationality, and in 1869 emigrated to England. There he founded the firm of Schuster and Sons, residing at first in Manchester, then in London. ERNEST JOSEPH SCHUSTER (b. Frankfort, 1850; d. London, 1924), Francis Joseph Schuster's eldest son, was a managing partner in the firm of Schuster and Sons, but also studied law, graduated from the University of Munich, and became a barrister-at-law in London

SCHUSTER

(1890). He was a member of the executive of the Society of Comparative Legislation, and a member of the council of the International Law Association. He published numerous treaties on English and German civil law, and a study, The Wife in Ancient and Modern Times (1914).

SIR ARTHUR SCHUSTER (b. Frankfort, 1851; d. London, 1934), the second son of Francis Joseph Schuster, also entered the firm of Schuster and Sons, but soon retired from business in order to study sciences. He was chief of the "eclipse expedition" to Siam in 1875, and directed or participated in the solar expeditions to Colorado in 1878, to Egypt in 1882, and to the West Indies in 1886. In 1879 Schuster became a fellow of the Royal Society, London, and in 1881 professor of physics at the University of Manchester, which chair he held until 1907. His studies and discoveries principally concerned electrical discharges through gases, also spectroscopy, which term was introduced by Schuster into scientific language in 1882, and terrestrial magnetism. Schuster was not only an important scholar, but also a great organizer of scientific work. He took an active part in the formation of the International Association of Academies (1899). He was constructively responsible for introducing meteorology as a university subject in England, and he effected the installation of physical laboratories at those universities in England which lacked such facilities and relied only on private laboratories. In 1918 Schuster was charged with reforming and reorganizing the Royal Society.

He published: Theory of Optics (1909); The Progress of Physics (1911); Britain's Heritage of Science (1917); Biographical Fragments (1932); and numerous special inquiries. During the first World War (1914-18) he served as scientific adviser in various departments of the British War Office.

SIR FELIX SCHUSTER (b. Frankfort, 1854; d. London, 1934), the third son of Francis Joseph Schuster, became chief partner in the firm of Schuster and Sons, and when the firm was amalgamated with the Union Bank of London Schuster became (1893) deputy governor and (1895) governor of the Union Bank. Schuster carried out many amalgamations which enlarged the Union Bank and the firm of Schuster and Sons, and thus became one of the most influential personalities of British banking. He was a firm free trader. Schuster was a member of the Council of India, and served on a number of governmental commissions. During the first World War he was a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee. After the War he endeavored to take an active part in the economic and political reconstruction of Europe. The "Resolution on World Restoration," inspired by Schuster, anticipated important items of the Dawes Plan. In 1906 he was made a baronet.

SIR GEORGE ERNEST SCHUSTER (b. London, 1881), the son of Ernest Schuster, was educated at New College, Oxford, and became (1903) a barrister-at-law. In 1905 he entered the firm of Schuster and Sons, and subsequently became director of the Westminster Bank, the Commercial Union Assurance Company, the English, Scottish, Australian Bank, and the East Indian Coal Company. He became chairman of Allied Suppliers Ltd. and of the Joint Committee on the Meat Trade, set up by the British and Argentine governments. During the first World War (1914-18) he served in France and North Russia, and in 1919 in the British Murmansk forces. He was (1943) chief assistant to the Organizer of International Credits under the League of Nations, and chairman of the Economic and Financial Advisory Committees of the Colonial Office.

SCHWABACH

SIR FELIX VICTOR SCHUSTER (b. London, 1885), the son of Felix Schuster, 2nd baronet, was (1943) director of the National Provincial Bank Ltd. He served in the first World War, and was decorated.

SIR CLAUD SCHUSTER (b. 1869), son of Frederick Leo Schuster and grandson of Leo Schuster, was educated at Winchester College and New College, Oxford. He was called to Bar, Inner Temple, in 1895, and from 1899 to 1902 was secretary to the London Government Act Commission. From 1907 to 1911 he was legal assistant, later on principal assistant and secretary to the Board of Education. In 1915 he was appointed clerk of the crown in chancery and permanent secretary to the lord chancellor. Schuster, an inveterate sportsman, especially as an alpinist, published Peaks and Pleasant Pastures (1911); Days in the Alps and Pyrenees (1930); and Sweet Enemy (1934).

LIONEL ROBERT SCHUSTER (b. London, 1879), the son of Louis Schuster, was educated at Malvern College and Sandhurst Staff College. He served in the South African War, and excelled in operations in Natal, at Rietsfontein, Lombards Kop and Langs Nek, and in the defense of Ladysmith. During the first World War (1914-18) Schuster served on general staff in France, Salonika, Egypt, and Palestine, attaining the rank of lieutenant-colonel. From 1926 to 1930 he commanded the 2nd Battalion, King's Regiment. He retired from military service in 1931. HUGO BIEBER.

SCHUSTER, JOSEPH, cellist, b. Constantinople, Turkey, 1905. He entered the St. Petersburg Conservatory on a scholarship, studying with Josef Press. His studies were completed at the Berlin Hochschule. Wilhelm Furtwängler discovered him and engaged him as first cellist of the Berlin Philharmonic, a post he held with great success until 1934. In 1934 Schuster settled in the United States, and after a successful debut at Town Hall he was appointed first cellist of the New York Philharmonic Symphony Orchestra, a post which he still held in 1943. Besides his orchestral work, he appeared extensively as soloist with orchestras, in recitals, and in performances of chamber music.

SCHUSTER, MAX LINCOLN, publisher, b. Kalusz, Galicia, 1897. He was brought to the United States when he was six weeks old. Schuster started as copy boy at the New York Evening World, but later became student reporter for the Boston Evening Transcript and the United Press Association while studying at the Columbia School of Journalism (B.Litt., 1917). During the first World War he was attached to the United States Treasury Department as chief publicity secretary of the Bureau of War Risk Insurance. In 1924 he became an associate in journalism at the Columbia Graduate School of Journalism. In the same year he founded, together with Richard Leo Simon, the Simon and Schuster publishing house.

Schuster was the author of Eyes on the World: A Photographic Record of History in the Making (1935). He edited A Treasury of the World's Great Letters (1940).

SCHUTZJUDEN, see PROTECTION.

SCHWAB, MOÏSE, Talmudic scholar, b. Paris, 1839; d. Paris, 1918. He was educated at the Talmud Torah in Strasbourg, and served as secretary (1857-66) to the orientalist Salomon Munk, whose biography he published in 1900 (Salomon Munk, Sa vie et ses oeuvres). In 1868 Schwab was appointed librarian on the staff of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. His most important achievement was his translation into French of the Palestinian Talmud (Le Talmud de Jérusalem, II vols., 1871-90).

His Répertoire des articles relatifs à l'histoire et à la

littérature juives parus dans les périodiques de 1665 à 1900 (1914-23) is a highly useful reference work. Schwab's other writings include: Histoire des Israélites (1866: 2nd ed., 1896); Littérature rabbinique. Élie del Medigo et Pico de la Mirandola (1878); Maqré Dardegé. Dictionnaire hébreu-italien du XVe siècle (1889); Vocabulaire de l'angélologie (1896-99).

SCHWAB, SIDNEY ISAAC, physician, b. Memphis, Tenn., 1871. He received the M.D. degree from Harvard University (1896) and did post-graduate work in Berlin, Vienna, Paris and London. Schwab practised neurology at St. Louis from 1899 on, and was appointed professor of nervous and mental diseases at the Washington University Medical School at St. Louis (1917); he still held this position in 1943. As a neurologist he was affiliated with several hospitals, including the St. Louis Jewish Hospital; during the first World War he served with the American Expeditionary Forces as military neurologist to Base Hospital 21 and as medical director to Base Hospital 117 (June, 1917, to January, 1919), and was discharged with the rank of captain. Schwab wrote The Adolescent, His Conflicts and Escapes (1929). He was a member of the sub-committee of the National Research Council on war neurosis.

SCHWABACH, JULIUS LEOPOLD, banker, b. Breslau, Germany, 1831; d. Berlin, 1898. He lost his parents in his early youth, and entered the banking house of S. Bleichroeder, Berlin, whose chief, Gerson von Bleichroeder, was his cousin.

Within a few years Schwabach became general manager of the firm, in 1883 partner and, after Gerson von Bleichroeder died (1893), chief of the firm. From 1893 until his death Schwabach was British consul general at Berlin. During the decades of Gerson von Bleichroedder's and Schwabach's collaboration the former concentrated on diplomatic activity of importance after Bismarck became prime minister of Prussia (1862) and later on chancellor of the Reich, while Schwabach was charged mainly with the technical problems of the banking business which resulted from Bleichroeder's political activity. Schwabach, however, took an active part also in diplomatic negotiations, although he remained in the background, and he also was a confidant of Bismarck.

The greatest technical problem which Schwabach had to solve was the disposition of the French war indemnity of five billions mark after the end of the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). This great task of receiving and distributing amounts of money unheard of up to that time required extremely complicated international arrangements. It was Schwabach who drafted the plan and supervised the execution of canalizing the sums pouring into Germany, while Bleichroeder was interested mainly in the problem of how France should be able and ready to make the payment. Then Schwabach was charged with the financial problems involved in the conversion of the Prussian railways into State property. Schwabach took active part also in the financing of Russian railways, and assisted Bleichroeder in his activities in behalf of the Jews of Roumania during the Congress of Berlin (1878). He supported Jewish charitable institutions in Berlin, and secretly acted as benefactor of poor Jewish families. In 1885 Schwabach gave Bismarck 50,000 marks on the occasion of the chancellor's seventieth birthday, while Bleichroeder gave 100,000 marks and Mendelssohn 200,000 to permit Bismarck to pay off the mortgages on his family estate of Schönhausen. Schwabach's home, the Hatzfeld palace, after his death acquired by the United States Embassy, was a center of Berlin's social life. His wife, Leonie (née Keyser), continued the tradition of the Jewish "Salon" initiated by Rahel Varnhagen and Henriette Herz. HUGO BIEBER.

SCHWABACH, PAUL VON, banker and diplomat, b. Berlin, 1867; d. Berlin, 1936. He was the son of Julius Leopold Schwabach. He became converted to Protestantism in his early manhood, and studied history before he entered the firm of S. Bleichroeder, whose head he became after his father's death (1898). He was also British consul general at Berlin from 1898 to 1914.

Many of his reports on German economy and legislation were printed in the Diplomatic and Consular Reports of the British Foreign Office. Like his father, Schwabach was an intimate friend of Bismarck. He was one of the last visitors who met Bismarck alive when he was at Friedrichsruh on March 28, 1898. He tried, although in vain, to reconcile the dismissed chancellor and Emperor William II. After Bismarck's death Schwabach became an intimate friend of Fritz von Holstein, the real head of the German foreign office, and after Holstein's removal from office he was equally intimate with Kiderlen-Waechter, secretary of foreign affairs. On the other hand, Schwabach was on the most friendly terms with Baron Alfred de Rothschild, and with Sir Eyrie Crowe, senior clerk at the British Foreign Office.

Schwabach and Crowe in their numerous letters addressed one another by the familiar du. Because of this position, Schwabach endeavored to reconcile England and Germany and, although his efforts remained unsuccessful, he exerted great influence on German and British statesmen.

Schwabach was charged by the German government with presenting, unofficially, the German point of view on almost all great questions and conflicts between 1900 and 1914, and with securing information unavailable to official representatives. Schwabach worked in this way in London, Paris, Rome and Constantinople. He made the diplomatic preparations for the expedition to China (1900) after the murder of the German minister to Peking, and contributed (1905) to the solution of the Moroccan crisis without war. In 1909 Schwabach sent out a feeler concerning an agreement between Germany and England to keep England out if a war should ensue between Germany and France. In 1911 he successfully negotiated with Caillaux, then French prime minister, to obtain territorial compensations for Germany in the French Congo area for the French occupation of Morocco. In 1913 Schwabach was German delegate to the financial conference of Paris. During the first World War (1914-18) Schwabach was opposed to German annexationist policy and to submarine warfare, being aware that the United States would not tolerate it but would enter the War on the side of England and France.

After the War Schwabach aided German efforts to undo the Treaty of Versailles and to refute Germany's responsibility for the War, but he did so with more moderation than other German political leaders, bankers and professors. In 1927 Schwabach distributed among his friends a collection of documents, Aus meinen Akten, containing a selection from his letters to Sir Eyrie Crowe, Alfred de Rothschild and others; this collection was an important contribution to the diplomatic history of Europe between 1900 and HUGO BIEBER.

1914.

Lit.: Die Grosse Politik der europäischen Kabinette, vols. 15, 19, 20, 21, 29 and 37.

SCHWADRON, ABRAHAM, see AUTOGRAPHS. SCHWARTZ, A. S., Hebrew poet, b. near Kovno, Lithuania, 1876. He came to the United States early in the 20th cent. and graduated from the Long Island Medical College in 1906. Prior to his arrival in the United States he had written poetry in Yiddish which had appeared in Der Yud, and was considered one of the pioneers in modern Yiddish verse. Later, however,

SCHWARTZ

he turned to the writing of Hebrew poetry, and although he continued to practice medicine he contributed regularly to various periodicals, including the Hatoren and Hadoar. Schwartz was a son-in-law of Zvi Hirsch Masliansky.

Schwartz was one of the first Hebrew poets in America. Two motifs are especially noticeable in his work: Jewish tradition and nature. He loved to sing of the Jewish festivals, of Jews praying in the synagogue and of historic scenes. Among his heroes were Isaac, Ruth, Jeremiah and Johanan ben Zakkai. In his songs of nature he sees the stars burning like eternal lamps in holiness and purity. He reveals a delicate and humane feeling for animals, birds and fishes, and bespeaks the love of man for all creation. Some of his songs were published in Anthologia Shel Hashirah Haibrith Beamerika.

SCHWARTZ, ELLIS MAXWELL, physician, b. Jassy, Roumania, 1892. He came to the United States in 1900, and received the M.D. degree from the New York University College of Medicine (1915). In 1918 he served with the United States Army as lieutenant in the medical corps. Schwartz was on the medical staff of the Israel Orphan Asylum in New York city from 1921, and on the staff of the clinic of the New York Post-Graduate Medical School and Hospital from 1926. He was noted for his invention of the surgical instruments which were named for him: the Schwartz antrum knife, the Schwartz antrum canula and the Schwartz antrum saw.

SCHWARTZ, ISTVÁN, sculptor and medalist, b. Nyitra, Hungary, 1851; place and date of death unknown. After an apprenticeship as silversmith at Pest he studied at the Vienna school for applied arts.

In 1872 he opened his own school for silver-smithing at Vienna, and in 1881 he became a teacher at the school of applied arts. Schwartz, who embraced Christianity, exhibited some sculptures (Budapest, 1891), such as Boy Killing Serpent, Faun with Geese and Hercules in Nessus' Shirt, but he was famous chiefly for his medals, coins and tablets.

He wrought medals in memory of Empress Elisabeth of Austria, Count Gyula Andrássy, Professor Billroth, and many artists and other notables. He modeled the head of Emperor Francis Joseph on the Austrian gold and silver coins, upon which his initial S appears. He also made coins for the Bulgarian, Serbian and Montenegrin states.

SCHWARTZ, JACOB, cantor, b. Kamenets Podolsk, Russia, 1886. He sang as a child in the choir of Cantor Itsikel Shkolnik of Kamenets.

At the age of seventeen Schwartz emigrated to Vienna, where he received a scholarship in the conservatory and studied voice with Professor Habig. He studied Hazanuth with the cantors Josef Wasser of Vienna, Isaac Eibeschuetz of Ujhely (Hungary), and Kalmen Lew of New York city, whither he came in 1903.

Schwartz held positions in Vienna and in Norfolk, Va. (1909-13), and in 1914 became cantor of Congregation B'nai Jeshurun, New York, a position which he still occupied in 1943. He founded (1915) the Cantor Schwartz Institute of Hazanuth and published (1935) his Shire Jacob in six volumes, embracing traditional melodies and cantoral recitatives with organ accompaniment for the Sabbath, festivals and high holy days. In 1941 to 1942 he was president of the Jewish Ministers Cantors Association of America.

MAX WOHLBERG. Lit.: Hazanuth (published by the Jewish Ministers Cantors Association, 1924 and 1937).

SCHWARTZ, JACOB RALPH, dentist and artist, b. Brichan, Bessarabia, Roumania, 1889. He was