Salomon's original petition, dated August 25, 1778, setting forth that he had been imprisoned by the British for his known sympathy with the patriot cause and for his friendliness with Hessian officers who were lukewarm in prosecuting the war. From New York Salomon fled to Philadelphia, leaving behind his wife and his first-born child, whom he later rescued. In Philadelphia he again started to deal in French and Dutch securities, and rapidly became one of the most eminent financiers of his time. This was the most crucial period in American history. Washington was leading his army against the Royalists, fighting inch by inch for American independence, but the records from the Revolutionary period reveal that without financial assistance the war could not have been won, and to this cause he contributed to such an extent that he has been regarded by the most eminent historians the Financier of the American Revolution. The various reports of the committees on Revolutionary War Claims of the United States Congress, ranging from the 30th to the 39th Congresses, unfold a glorious page of Salomon's distinct help toward winning the War of Independence. Evidence is there presented that Salomon assisted the Department of Finance of the Continental Congress between the years 1782 and 1784, when Robert Morris was at its head. Records were found in the ledgers and day books of the Bank of North America, extracted therefrom and sworn to by Hockley, the cashier of that bank, on May 1, 1846, receipts having been produced to show that Morris received from him a total of $211,678. The Committee of the House reported its careful examination of a mass of documentary evidence and satisfied itself of the authenticity of the record. His financial activities in this direction are clearly delineated in Morris' Diary -a most profitable source of information-in which he recorded his transactions in seventy-five entries mentioning Salomon's name from August, 1781, to April, 1784. While the notations are curt and businesslike, they sufficiently indicate the value of his services and his patriotism. Of particular interest in the Morris Diary is the fact that Salomon was appointed as Official Broker to the Office of Finance but, prior to this, he was already the trusted agent of the French embassy and French military establishment, and helped to promote the Franco-American alliance in every way in his power. In addition, Salomon handled large sums in the complicated transactions for the Dutch government attending the transfer of the proceeds of the Dutch loans, part of which were negotiated by John Adams. He also helped the Spanish representative in the United States, Don Francisco Rendon, who wrote to the governor of Havana that, but for Salomon he would not have been able to maintain his majesty's mission in the style and credit demanded. In the time of the Revolution a considerable number of public men were in distress. The treasury was so much in arrears to the servants in public office that many of them could not without payment perform their duties, and many were threatened with jail for debts which they had contracted in order to enable them to live. Historical records show that Salomon helped a large number of these persons, among them James Madison, who was to become fourth president of the United States; Thomas Jefferson, third president of the United States; Arthur Lee, Baron von Steuben, General Thomas Mifflin, General Arthur St. Clair, Edmund Randolph, Colonel Theodoric Bland, James Wilson, Joseph Reed, James Monroe, fifth president of the United States; Major William McPherson, and Joseph Jones. Of special interest is also the fact that he helped finance Armand's Legion, when the Marquis de la Rouarie was seeking to replete his shattered troops after the disastrous battle at Camden. In addition to his deep interest and concern in American affairs, Salomon devoted a very considerable part of his energy to matters of Jewish importance. He helped to build the first synagogue, Mickve Israel, in Philadelphia, contributing one-fourth of its expenses, and was one of its trustees. He contributed various sums to those who needed it, without regard to religion or race, and considerably helped his parents, relatives and friends whom he left in Poland. Salomon was generally known as "The Good Jew." One of his important deeds to Jewry at large was a petition which he submitted on December 23, 1783, to the Council of Censors, calling their attention to the fact that in spite of the clause in the constitution of the state of Pennsylvania exempting civic employees from passing a test in religion, they were compelled, on assuming office, to take an oath to the effect that they believed in both the Old and the New Testament. Because, owing to this oath, no Jew true to his religion could accept an office with the government, the petition requested that this practice be abolished. This petition later on proved to be instrumental in the revision of the Pennsylvania state constitution in such a manner as to abolish the religious test. Salomon was a Mason, a member of Solomon Lodge No. 2, A.F. and A.M., Philadelphia. He was never a healthy person, as he had contacted a chronic cold as a result of his incarceration in the roofless Sugar House Prison, and he died on Thursday, January 6, 1785, when he was only forty-five years old. From 1860 on many attempts were made to memorialize his deeds for his country and to perpetuate his name in the annals of American history for generations to come. Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, Woodrow Wilson, Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover and Franklin D. Roosevelt spoke about his contributions to the American Revolution in various addresses in the most glorifying terms. Finally, in 1936, both Houses of Congress unanimously adopted a bill to erect a monument to him on government soil in Washington. On December 15, 1941, a monument was unveiled in Chicago as a joint memorial to George Washington, Robert Morris and Haym Salomon, the funds having been contributed by Americans of all religions and Z. TYGEL. ancestries. Lit.: Thirtieth Congress, First Sessions, House of Representatives Report No. 504; Thirty-first Congress, First Session, Senate Report No. 177; Hart, Albert Bushnell, Haym Salomon Monument Publication; Russell, Haym Salomon and the Revolution; Sparks Manuscripts; Papers of the Continental Congress, Library of Congress, No. 41, IX, folio 58; Tygel, Z., Haym Salomon, His Life and Work (1925); Hart, Charles Spencer, The Jew Who Helped Save America; McConnell, Guy, "Freedom's Banker," The Mentor, May, 1930; Ford, Worthington C., in New York Evening Post, June 29, 1911; Shipman, Samuel, The Unwritten Chapter (1920; a play, with Haym Salomon as the hero and central character); Kohler, Max J., The Patriotic Broker of the Revolution (pamphlet; 1931); Cohen, George, Jews in the Making of America (1924) 77-81, 255; Markens, Isaac, The Hebrews in America (1888) 66-70; Baron, H. S., Haym Salomon (1929); Fast, Howard, Haym Salomon: Son of Lib erty (1941); Adams, Herbert B., "A Sketch of Haym Salomon. From an Unpublished MS. in the Papers of Jared Sparks," Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society, No. 2 (1894) 5-19; Hollander, J. H., "Some Further References Relating to Haym Salomon," ibid., No 3 (1895) 7-11; ibid., No. 27 (1920) 227-28, 466-73; No. 28 (1922) 225-26, 253, 300; No. 29 (1925) xl, xlii, 145; No. 32 (1931) xxvii-xxviii, 134; No. 33 (1934) 1-2, 251; Congress Weekly, Dec. 26, 1941, p. 4; Bach, Marcus, "The Forgotten Patriot," Opinion, Jan., 1940, pp. 6-8; American Hebrew, Aug. 11, 1939, p. 4; Aug. 18, 1939, p. 12; Feb. 13, 1925, p. 422; Sept. 10, 1926, p. 498; Jewish Chronicle (London), Sept. 3, 1937, p. 47; B'nai B'rith Magazine, vol. 43, p. 279: Friedenberg, Albert M., "The Jews of America 1654-1787," American Jewish Year Book, vol. 28 (1926-27) 209-12. SALOMON, JULIUS, historian, b. Copenhagen, Denmark, 1853; d. Copenhagen, 1922. In 1870 he began to study at the University of Copenhagen, and at the same time earned his living as a stenographer in the Danish parliament. In 1877 he became an associate of Marcus Rubin as statistician of the city of Copenhagen. In 1897 Salomon was appointed librarian of the newly founded municipal library of Copenhagen, and within a short time succeeded in creating a collection of books, manuscripts and pictures which was highly regarded as the basis for scientific research into the history of the capital of Denmark. From 1907 to 1917 he was also assistant secretary to the Danish upper house. Salomon was esteemed as an authority on Danish history, especially of the history of the Jews in Denmark. He edited Meyer Aaron Goldschmidt's works (1908-10), and was co-editor of the Tidsskrift for Joedisk History og Literature, to which he contributed many valuable studies. SALOMON, OTTO ARON, pedagogue, b. Gothenburg, Sweden, 1849; d. 1907. He was interested in manual training, and established at Nääs a handicraft (slojd) school for boys. To this school, which became internationally known, a teachers' seminary was added some years later. Through his efforts, manual training became part of the curriculum of Sweden's public schools. Salomon furthered manual training not only through direct instruction, but also through writings, including: Slöjdskolan och folkskolan (1876-84); Om Slöjden såsom uppfostringsmedel (1884); Den pedagogiska Slöjden (1895); Handbok i pedagogisk Snickersslöjd (1890). Some of his works were translated into English and other foreign languages. Lit.: Salmonsens Konversations Leksikon, vol. 20 (1926) 843; Nordisk Familjebok, vol. 17 (1932) 230. SALOMON (SALOMON-CALVI), WILHELM, geologist and mineralogist, b. Berlin, 1868. Graduated from the University of Pavia in 1894, in 1899 he became assistant professor at the University of Heidelberg, where he was appointed director of the GeologicoPaleontological Institute (1908) and was professor from 1912 to 1933. During this period he wrote several works on geology and mineralogy, and edited Grundzüge der Geologie. Until 1933 he was a member of the Heidelberg Academy of Science, a privy aulic councillor, and an honorary citizen of the city. In 1934 he was appointed professor at the University of Ankara, Turkey, where he was living in 1943. SALOMONE, WALTER L., British-Maltese statesman, b. Malta; d. Malta, 1939. He was descended from an old Italian Jewish family which settled at Malta soon after the British occupied the island. One of his brothers was captain in the Royal Maltese Artillery. Salomone was keenly interested in politics and loyal to Britain even while a considerable part of the Maltese population was claiming independence or even seeking incorporation into Italy. When, in 1921, the Maltese legislative assembly was created which superseded the former council of government, Salomone was elected member of the new parliament, and was reelected as long as the parliamentary constitution existed. He was a leader of the Maltese Constitutionalist Party and was highly esteemed even by his political adversaries because of his economic knowledge. From 1927 to 1931 Salomone was minister of trade and customs. He was a member of the cabinet which was supported by a coalition of the Constitutionalist and Labor parties and was presided over by Sir Gerald Strickland. As minister, Salomone was generally considered "a busy SALOMONS and encouraging person," and he took vigorous measures to deal with the unemployment problem. In 1930 a political crisis arose because the prime minister came into a grave conflict with the bishops of Malta and Gozo, who issued a pastoral letter forbidding Roman Catholics to vote for Strickland and his cabinet. This crisis became much more acute when the Papal See took the bishops' side, and in 1932 Strickland's cabinet was defeated. Salomone, who loyally supported Strickland, became a leader of the opposition to the new government formed by the Nationalist Party until, in 1933, the British government abrogated the Maltese constitution. In 1936 Salomone represented the Government of Malta Section at the British Industry Fair in London. SALOMONS, SIR DAVID, merchant, British member of Parliament, and writer, b. London, 1797; d. London, 1873. He was the son of Levy Salomons. As a youth he entered business, and became one of the founders of the London and Westminster Bank (1832). His claim to distinction rests on the courageous efforts he made to have Jewish disabilities removed. In 1835 he was elected sheriff for London and Middlesex, his election being afterward confirmed by special act of Parliament. In the same year he was chosen alderman, but refused the position on account of the oath which he was required to take. He was subsequently chosen for various other offices. In 1845, through the assistance of Sir Robert Peel, he procured the passage of a law which opened municipal offices to Jews. He was accordingly admitted as alderman of Cordwainers' ward, and in 1855 became the first Jewish Lord Mayor of London. Salomons aimed at a seat in Parliament from 1837 on, and in 1851 was elected as a Liberal for Greenwich. He declined, however, to take the oath "on the true faith of a Christian." In 1858 the parliamentary oath was changed, mainly through the efforts of Lord John Russell, Gladstone, and Lionel Nathan de Rothschild, and it thus became possible for Salomons to take his seat in the House of Commons, where he remained until his death. In 1869 he was created a baronet. Salomons took an active part in communal affairs, presiding over many Jewish organizations. He was an authority on commercial and financial questions. He wrote: A Defense of Joint-Stock Banks (1837); The Monetary Difficulties of America (1837); An Account of the Persecution of the Jews at Damascus (1840); Parliamentary Oaths (1850); Alterations of Oaths (1853). Lit.: Hyamson, Albert M., David Salomons (1939). SALOMONS, SIR DAVID LIONEL (GOLDSMID-STERN-), second baronet, scientist and engineer, b. London, 1851; d. London, 1925. He was the son of Philip Salomons and the nephew of Sir David Salomons, and it was from the latter, who had no male heir, that he received the baronetcy by special remainder in 1873. His wife, Laura, was a daughter of Baron Herman de Stern. Salomons was an authority in the field of electrical engineering, and contributed importantly to the literature of that subject; he published Electric Light Installations (3 vols., 8th ed., 1894-98). He had, besides, a variety of other scientific interests, and was one of the pioneers in the movement for "horseless carriages." Among the science societies in which he was active were the Institution of Electrical Engineers, where he was vicepresident and treasurer, the Royal Astronomical Society, the Geological Society and the Physical Society of London. He was, in addition, a figure in local politics. As magistrate he served for Kent, Sussex, Middlesex, Westminster and London. In 1881 he was high sheriff of Kent, and he was county councillor of Kent for the Tonbridge Division. In the town of Tunbridge Wells he was alderman and mayor (1894-95). SALOMONSOHN SALOMONS, SIR JULIAN EMANUEL, jurist and statesman, b. Birmingham, England, 1835; d. Sydney, Australia, 1909. He emigrated to Australia as a boy, and first entered a bookseller's, then a stockjobber's business. For some time he was secretary of the Great Synagogue at Sydney, which sent him to England to study law. He returned in 1861 to Sydney, where he was admitted to the bar and practised successfully before the supreme court. He was counsel for the crown in many important cases. In 1869 Salomons was nominated a member of the legislative council of New South Wales, but resigned in 1871. Reappointed in 1887, Salomons took an important part in the debates of the chamber until he was sent to England (1899). From 1869 to 1871 he was, as solicitor general, a member of the cabinets headed by Robertson and Cowper, and represented the government in the upper house. From 1887 to 1889 he was vice-president of the cabinet of Sir Henry Parkes, and represented it in the legislative council. From 1891 to 1893 he was a member of Sir George Dibbs' cabinet. In 1881 Salomons was appointed royal commissioner to inquire into the Milburn Creek Copper Mining scandal. Although appointed chief justice (1886), he resigned because of the hostile attitude of some members of the court before he was sworn in. Salomons took a prominent part in the federation campaign, but opposed the commonwealth enabling bill. In 1899 and 1900 he was agent-general for the colony of New South Wales in London. After his return to Sydney, he intended to retire to private life, but was appointed (1903) standing counsel to the commonwealth government. Salomons was knighted in 1891. He was a trustee of the Sydney National Art Gallery and the National Park of New South Wales, Queen's Counsel, and bencher, Gray's Inn, London. SALOMONS, LEVY, financier and communal worker, b. London, 1774; d. London, 1843. He was the son of Solomon Salomons, and the grandson of Juda Leib Zelig, who went to England from Holland at the beginning of the 18th cent. Like his father and grandfather, Levy Salomons took a prominent part in the management of the Hambro Synagogue of London. He joined its governing committee in 1795, when he was only twenty-one years old, and in 1801 became treasurer (Gubbay) and in 1804 president. But in 1806 he came into sharp conflict with his congregation, whose members, embittered, prevented intermediaries from attempting a reconciliation. Salomons became a member of the New Synagogue, and in 1812 was elected representative of this congregation. In his will Salomons, however, bequeathed to the Hambro Synagogue a greater sum than to other synagogues. He left the further sum of £2,000 for the benefit of poor Jews of Jerusalem, Tiberias, Hebron and Safed. In his financial enterprises Salomons was closely connected with Dutch Jewish bankers. He was recognized as one of the most substantial citizens of London at this time. Salomons played an important part in the development of Lloyd's, and supported the company during critical times. His son, David Salomons, was the first Jew to serve as Lord Mayor of London. SALOMONSEN, ISAK SALOMON, banker and philanthropist, b. Copenhagen, Denmark, 1830; d. Copenhagen, 1916. In 1856 he founded a moneychanging business, and within a year became the leading money-changer of Denmark. For many decades Salomonsen was one of the foremost personalities at the Bourse of Copenhagen, respected by Danish and foreign bankers and by his government. In 1912 he retired from business. Upon retirement Salomonsen, a wealthy man, gave lavishly to charitable causes. He secretly supported many poor families, and was a patron of arts and music. He helped considerably to improve the housing and schools of the workers of Copenhagen. The largest part of Salomonsen's philanthropies was devoted to the Jewish community of Copenhagen, and as a member of its directorate he fostered improvement of the cultural and political conditions of the Jews in Denmark. Lit.: Fischer, Josef, Slaegten Salomonsen. SALOMONSOHN, family of bankers in Germany. The family goes back to Gedaliah Levin (1727-93), who was called from Poland to Copenhagen, Denmark, as chief rabbi. His son, Abraham Gedaliah (17511827), became his successor, and his grandson, Salomon Abraham Gedaliah (1776-1844), was also rabbi in the Danish capital. Gedaliah Salomonsohn (1799-1837), son of Salomon (whence the family surname) Abraham Gedaliah and great-grandson of Gedaliah Levin, became the first of the family of bankers. Important members of the family were: ADOLPH SALOMONSOHN (b. Inowrazlaw, Posen, 1831; d. Berlin, 1919), co-owner of the Disconto Gesellschaft, in Berlin. His mother, Ernestine Levy (1800-67), traced her descent back to the famous Cabalist Solomon Luria (1510-73). Salomonsohn studied law, and one of the theses which he prepared for the counsel of the Disconto Gesellschaft was brought to the attention of the founder of the banking house, the former Prussian minister of finance, David Hansemann, who invited the young lawyer to enter the firm. However, since Salomonsohn had already decided to enter the civil service, he soon became a notary in Ratibor. Following an anti-Semitic attack upon him by the then Prussian minister of justice, Count von der Lippe, Salomonsohn quit the civil service, and accepted the position previously offered by Hansemann. In 1863 he became counsellor, in 1866 manager and in 1869 partner of the banking firm, later the greatest banking institute in Germany. As banker and jurist Salomonsohn became a pioneer in the stock and bond business. Prussian, Bavarian and Baden state issues of bonds were placed by him. He played a decisive role also in the financing of the then flourishing railroad business, and in connection therewith in the settlement of the Bethel Henry Strousberg scandal. The construction and completion of the Gotthard Railroad in Switzerland, of whose board he was a member until its acquisition by the Swiss state in 1909, were due to his farsightedness. After the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), which he helped to finance, a close friendship developed between Salomonsohn and Emil Kirdorf, and thus with the then incipient German heavy industry. Salomonsohn and Kirdorf were convinced monarchists, but they were just as certain that Emperor William II would cause the downfall of the German Reich. Salomonsohn coined the sentence: "Jewry has given monotheism to the world; it will yet teach the world tolerance.” He retired in 1888, devoting himself to the study of the great philosophers, especially Kant, and the natural sciences. He participated in the establishment of the adult educational project known as Urania, in Berlin. Throughout his life he consistently opposed conversion. ARTHUR SALOMONSOHN (b. Inowrazlaw, Posen, 1859; d. Berlin, 1930), co-owner of the Disconto Gesellschaft, was a nephew of Adolf Salomonsohn and, like his uncle, at first a jurist. He, too, began his career as counsellor of the Disconto Gesellschaft, becoming manager in 1893 and partner in 1896. His interests were connected mainly with the mining industry (potash) and the floating of South American bond issues. He carried on negotiations with the governments of Argentina (1891) and Venezuela, traveled to all the European capitals, and was a frequent visitor in the United States. In 1903 he was appointed Reich government expert to the conference held in Washington, D. C. In 1912 he established the Neu-Guinea Co., a corporation for the development of the then German colony of New Guinea. He played an active role in the financing of Russian railroads and the Roumanian oil industry. In 1929 he consummated, as his last act, the merging of the Disconto Gesellschaft with the Deutsche Bank; this was one of the most decisive transactions within German economic life as a consequence of the inflation. Salomonsohn was a member of the central board of the Reichsbank, the Berlin Chamber of Industry and Commerce, and the Reich Economic Council. GEORG SALOMONSOHN (SOLMSSEN) (b. Berlin, 1869), co-owner of the Deutsche Bank and Disconto Gesellschaft, of Berlin, was the son of Adolph Salomonsohn. He attended the Friedrich Werdersches Gymnasium in Berlin, studied law, and in 1898, at the request of the Prussian ministry of justice, went to the United States to collect material relating to the construction trades. He was deeply shocked when he met with anti-Semitism in the country of liberty. He saw in it proof of "the indigestibility of Jewry by the surrounding world even in the melting-pot of America." Forced to choose between Zionism and absolute assimilation, he accepted baptism (his father had remained a believing Jew), and changed his name to Solmssen. In order to make his motives clear, however, he published the results of his American studies, Der gesetzliche Schutz der Begläubiger in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nordamerika (Berlin, 1900), under his real name of Georg Salomonsohn. Later he wrote an article, "Aktienrecht," for the Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, in 1926 Probleme des Aktienrechts, and in 1929 Youngplan und Agrarpolitik. Salomonsohn entered the Disconto Gesellschaft in 1900. His special fields were the oil and the cable industries. In 1911 he became a partner in the firm, and in 1930 partner with Oskar Wassermann in Germany's greatest banking institute, the Deutsche Bank und Disconto Gesellschaft, created by his cousin, Arthur Salomonsohn. Politically he was a conservative, but his knowledge of international economics convinced him that the crises which followed the first World War would bring about changes in the world's economic structure. Salomonsohn was a foe of the Weimar Republic, and strove to prevent Germany from fulfilling its obligations under the Treaty of Versailles. He was a foe not only of Communism but also of economic individualism and of the high tariff policy. He believed that the solution would be found in "surmounting economic frontiers." In 1921, as president of the DeutschAtlantische Telegraphen-Gesellschaft, he cooperated with the American banker A. W. Harriman in establishing a cable between Emden, Germany, and New York. Shortly after the Nazis' accession to power (1933) he retired; however, under the Nazi regime he published his collection of political and economic writings under the title of Beiträge zur deutschen Politik und Wirtschaft, in which he showed his sympathy with the principles of German National Socialism, with the exception of its anti-Semitism. From 1933 to 1939 Salomonsohn spent considerable time in England seeking, with some success, to defend the policies of the Nazi regime. In 1943 he was living in Zurich, Switzerland. HUGO BIEBER and JOHN F. OPPENHEIMER. Lit.: Zielenziger, Kurt, Juden in der deutschen Wirtschaft (1930). SALONIKA SALOMONSON, HERMAN, writer and journalist, b. Amsterdam, Holland, 1892; d. in the concentration camp at Dachau, Germany, 1942. He was editor of the weekly newspaper Groene Amsterdammer (1915-1923) and of the daily Javabode of Batavia (19231927). In 1927 he became European director of the Netherlands Indies News Agency Aneta; in 1935 director in the Indies. Salomonson returned to Holland in 1936 and became Aneta director at The Hague. This post he occupied until the Germans invaded the Netherlands (May, 1940). Under the pen name of Melis Stoke he wrote numerous essays and articles, and the novels Zoutwaterliefde (English trans. Love at Sea); Luchtvacantie (Vacation in the air); and De Razende Berg (The Furious Mountain). SALONIKA (Greek, Thessalonike), seaport in Macedonia, with 60,000 Jews among its approximately 240,000 inhabitants (1934). It is not known when the first Jews settled in Salonika. The apostle Paul found a large Jewish community when he came to Salonika in 53 C.E. (Acts 17:1). Nothing is known regarding the fate of the Jews in the city during the next centuries. Jews from Salonika, however, were scattered all over the Balkan peninsula in the 9th cent. In Salonika itself the Jews rendered great services at this period in the development of commerce and trade; therefore they were exempt, at the time of the First Crusade (1096) from every tax. The number of Jews in Salonika in 1173, according to reports by the noted Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela, was only 500. On account of the frequent expulsion of Jews from France, Italy, Sicily, Calabria and Poland during the 13th and 14th centuries, the Jews in Salonika, who were organized in several congregations, according to their homelands, increased considerably. However, the highest prosperity of the Jews in this city was not reached until the Turkish rule. The first Turkish Sultans offered them considerable privileges which opened great possibilities for their development. A new Jewish community was established in Salonika around 1470 under the name of "Frank" or "Frankfort"; it consisted of fugitives from Bavaria, who had fled from the country under the reign of Louis IX. It is evidenced by the great scholars who lived at that time in Salonika that the city was then already a center of Jewish knowledge and education; among them were the astronomer Solomon ben Elijah, author of Sharbit Hazahab, and Sabbatai Hakohen. A great change in the Jewish life of the city took place with the mass immigration of Jews from Spain and Portugal in 1493 and 1496. The influx of the Sephardic Jews brought new powers and created a new community organization. The older Jewish inhabitants soon became accustomed to the new conditions, adopted the language and customs of their Sephardic coreligionists, and were, in the course of time, absorbed entirely by them. Among the most prominent Sephardic refugees who settled in Salonika during this period were Ephraim Caro and his son Joseph, author of the Shulhan Aruch; the physician Solomon ben Habib; Abraham Hazan; Don Judah Benveniste, who presented his ample library to the city; and Jacob ibn Habib, author of the En Yaakob. Salonika soon had great Yeshivas and other places of study. Joseph Taytazak, one of whose pupils was Solomon Molcho, was one of the most prominent adherents of the Cabala. But the flourishing life of the Jews of Salonika was soon threatened through the pressure of excessive taxes which the Sultans imposed upon them. Merchants especially had to pay no fewer than nineteen kinds of taxes; therefore many of them left the city. Great fires destroyed the Jewish quarters in 1545 and 1620. In addition, serious conflicts within the Jewry of Salonika hampered the internal development of the community. Especially the residence of Sabbatai Zevi in Salonika (1659) divided Jewry there into two factions. Salonika was, next to Smyrna, the most prominent center of this movement. Jacob Frank, too, lived in Salonika. More than 3,000 Jews (Dönmeh) embraced Islam at that time. The community in Salonika made great progress after 1890, especially after the rise of the Young Turk movement, and this development continued under the Greek rule, under which the city came after the first Balkan War (1912). The Jews represented the majority of the municipal population under the reign of the Turks; therefore their Sabbath was the general day of rest, on which the banks were closed and all work in the port ceased. However, a complete change took place as a result of the exchange of population between Turkey and Greece, when numerous Balkan Greeks immigrated into Salonika, and the political and economic situation of the Salonika Jews took a turn for the worse. Before the conquest by the Nazis (April, 1941), Salonika had more than thirty synagogues, which were under the jurisdiction of the Jewish communal authorities; it had also a first class Jewish hospital (Hospital Baron Hirsch) and several Jewish apothecaries. There existed a strong Zionist movement and much interest in the revival of Hebrew. There were also a lodge of the B'nai B'rith and a committee which labored for a rapprochement between Jews and Greeks. The Jewish school system in Salonika was highly developed. There were the Talmud Torah Hagadol, the great Jews of Salonika doing penance during the agitation that attended the career of Sabbatai Zevi Jewish public school, which was founded in 1663 and had about 1,500 pupils; the public school at Vardar; the small Talmud Torah School (Talmud Torah Hakatan in Calamaria), and a great number of Jewish public schools which were foundations partly of the Alliance Israélite Universelle and partly of the Hilfsverein der Deutschen Juden. The Jewish printing industry, established in Salonika in 1515, produced numerous works, and the newspaper industry was early developed. The city had, furthermore, a great Jewish library and a number of Yeshivas. After the first World War the Jews of Salonika united to preserve the Sabbath when a law was passed compelling Sunday rest and brought them considerable economic loss. The Jews of Salonika were known everywhere for their business acumen. They were leaders in commerce and industry, and active also in trade and in the free professions. The Jewish freight carriers in the port of Salonika are especially well known. The Jews were very active in the Young Turk movement, which had its center of support in Salonika. Among the four Jews elected to the Turkish Parliament in 1908 there was a representative from Salonika. The Jews were active in public political life under the Greek rule also. The Greek Parliament had four Jewish deputies from Salonika, and Peppo Malach was finance minister during the reign of King Constantin. The plight of Salonika Jewry started with the beginning of Italian-Greek hostilities, in the fall of 1940. Chief Rabbi Zvi Hirsch Koretz of Salonika publicly protested against the bombardment of the civilian population of Salonika by the Italian air force which wrought havoc on a district mostly inhabited by poor Jews. Many Salonika Jews were prominent in the defense of Greece. When, in April, 1941, the city was conquered by the Germans, virtually all the Jews fell into the hands of the invaders. A collective fine of one million drachmas was imposed on the Jewish community, and thousands of Jews were sent to labor camps or to Roumanian ports. The economic situation of the Jews was so grave that in 1943 at least fifty Jews were dying from hunger in Salonika every day. The Salonika municipality attempted to distribute what relief was available to Jews and Christians alike without discrimination, but the Nazis intervened. DAVID F. MARKUS. Lit.: Almanach national au profit de l'hospital de Hirsch (1911); Ottolenghi, M. J., "Gli Ebrei de Salonicco," Vessillo Israelitico, vol. 14, p. 150; Graetz, H., in Monatsschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judentums, vol. 26, p. 130; Emanuel, S. I., ibid. (1930) 421-29: Orzar Yisrael; Franco, M., Essai sur l'histoire des Israelites de l'empire ottoman (1897); Rosanes, S. A., Dibre Yeme Yisrael Betogarmah (1930); Emanuel, S. I., Histoire des |