Few instances of race displacement by Europeans working at a lower wage have been found. Indeed, with the rapid expansion of industry, the immigrants introduced for construction work have at times been paid more than those previously employed, the numbers of the latter being insufficient to meet the increasing demand, but such instances are unusual. In most cases when more men have been needed they have been available from the more recent immigration at the prevailing wage. Italians and Greeks have been employed as section hands on the railroads, as laborers about mines, smelters, coke ovens, and lumber mills at a lower wage than other white men, including the Slavs, but to such a limited extent as to be unimportant. Generally they have been paid the "white man's wage."

These south and east European races have on several occasions been introduced as strike breakers, as, for example, in the coal mines of Colorado, New Mexico, and Washington, and in the metalliferous mines of Colorado. In such cases they have made possible the retention of the old scale of remuneration, because of the failure of the strikes, and have discouraged the efforts of the trade unions. The numbers introduced for such purposes have, however, been relatively small, and their use in this connection is an exception to the general conditions of their advent in western industry.

Although there has been little underbidding by them, the effect of the introduction of the south and east European races into the industries has been important. The availability of such a supply of unskilled laborers has, on the one hand, assisted greatly in the expansion of industry, while, on the other, it has seriously retarded the advance of wages in those occupations where such labor could be advantageously used. A striking example of this retardation is found in the rate of wages of section hands on the various steam railways, which has varied little during the last fifteen years, while the wages of others have materially increased. Japanese and Mexicans have been largely employed at this work, but the recent European immigration has also played an important part in the situation. Wages of Japanese have advanced materially, but those of the south and east European and Mexican races have increased only slightly.

The statement that the employment of immigrants has retarded the advance of wages is further substantiated by the fact that in those localities where south and east European immigrants are largely employed the rate of wages is noticeably lower than in those where natives and north European immigrants predominate in the labor supply. An example of this is afforded by a comparison of the earnings of street-railway employees in various communities. In one locality in the State of Washington where natives and north Europeans constituted the majority of those employed, wages for maintenance of way and construction laborers varied from $2.25 to $2.50 per day, while in another community near by, where Italians and Greeks were largely employed, similar labor received a wage varying from $1.75 to $2.25. În three California localities where the south and east European element predominated in the construction and maintenance of way "gangs," the prevailing wages ranged between $1.75 and $2.25 per day, while in two localities where natives and north Europeans were largely employed the rates varied between $2 and $2.50 and $2.25 and $3 per day, respectively. Other instances

of this retardation might be cited from the various industries, as, for example, the wages earned by coal miners in northern Colorado and the employees of ore mines and smelters in Montana, where the natives and north Europeans are generally employed, which wages are considerably higher than those paid for similar work in other localities where a large percentage of south and east Europeans are employed.

The influence of the trade unions in this connection should be noted, however, for in both the Montana and the Colorado districts mentioned union organization is strong and has been chiefly responsible for securing and maintaining the higher rates of wages which obtain there. But the maintenance of higher rates has been accomplished in a large measure by attracting skilled men of the older immigration from nonunion districts and keeping out, by means of public sentiment, and in some cases by other means, the cheaper immigrant labor from south and east Europe. On the other hand, in exceptional instances high wages have been secured by means of organization in localities where the more recent immigrants predominate. A striking example of this condition is found in the Wyoming coal fields, where 85.9 per cent of the employees were foreign-born, and of these 39.9 per cent south and east Europeans, and 20.6 per cent Orientals. In spite of this preponderance of the last-mentioned races union rates obtain similar to those in effect in northern Colorado, and the wages and earnings of the miners are high. Conditions in Wyoming are, however, somewhat unusual. In general, it is true that the lack of union organization and the prevalence of relatively low wages are coextensive with the predominance of south and east Europeans in the labor supply.

As noted above, the immigrants from south and east Europe have found unskilled work in the expanding industries of the West. Their influx and the gradual withdrawal of natives and north Europeans from the less remunerative branches of work have developed rather sharp occupational differences among the various races employed and corresponding differences in their earnings. A comparatively small percentage of the south and east Europeans are engaged in skilled occupations in the large industries, and those who are so employed are for the most part North Italians, Slovenians, and Slovaks, who have been in this country somewhat longer than the others of the same general group. The slight occupational progress of the majority is largely traceable to recent immigration. They have not the knowledge of American methods of industry and the familiarity with the English language which are essential in skilled or supervisory positions. These obstacles have been less easily overcome by members of this race group because of their tendency to "colonize" and their consequent treatment as separate groups by employers. In fact, it is the avowed policy of many employers who use south and east Europeans to a considerable extent to keep them segregated as much as possible in order to avoid any display of race antipathy and to simplify supervision. The few members of these races who occupy supervisory positions are in most cases foremen of "gangs of men of their own race, in which capacity they are very effective because of their knowledge of the language and habits of the men they oversee.

The progress of the various races employed in the industries of the West toward assimilation is indicated in some measure by the proportions who have learned to speak English. Comparing them on the basis of length of residence in the United States, it is clear that a fairly distinct line may be drawn between the north European races on the one hand and the south and east Europeans on the other. This difference is most marked among those immigrants who have been in the United States less than five years. Approximately fourfifths of the members of non-English-speaking north European races who have resided in this country less than five years speak English, as opposed to less than half of most of the races of the other group. It should be noted, however, that of the south and east Europeans the Finns, Dalmatians, and Croatians show the greatest progress, while the least advance is noticeable among the Russians, Slovaks, Herzegovinians, and North and South Italians.

Among those who have resided in the United States from five to nine years there is not so marked a difference between the members of the two race groups. Approximately nine-tenths of the north Europeans speak English, while some four-fifths of the Russians, the Croatians, the Herzegovinians, the Greeks, and the Montenegrins have gained a command of our tongue. The proportions of the other south and east European races who speak English are somewhat lower, only about three-fifths of the North and South Italians having acquired the language. Practically all of the north Europeans the length of whose residence in this country has been ten years or over speak English. Moreover, approximately nine-tenths of the members of the most important south and east European races of similar length of residence speak English. Among the older immigrants those reporting the least progress are Poles, Portuguese, Slovaks, and South Italians.

Thus it is evident that the wide difference as shown between the north Europeans and the south and east Europeans during the first four years of residence in this country, tends to disappear in later years and that the south and east Europeans are much handicapped in the beginning is very clear. They are given the most unskilled and disagreeable work, when first employed, and are usually placed in "gangs" of their own race, under bosses who speak their native language. Where this is not the case they are avoided by their fellow-workmen of other races who speak English, while few of their own race have been in the country long enough to become familiar with our language. Thus they have little chance to associate with English-speaking people at their work, and it is commonly true that this segregation is carried into their home life. The single men, and the married men whose wives are abroad, are often herded into "bunk houses" in race groups, and boarded as race groups either by private individuals or by the employers. Furthermore, the men with families usually "colonize" and have little to do with other races than their own. Such segregation is usually voluntary on their part, but whatever its cause may be it is a serious hindrance to assimilation. The races from south and east Europe speak languages more radically different from English than the Teutonic speech of the north Europeans, who besides having the advantage of a similarity in language associate freely among themselves and with the natives, both at work and in their social life. Moreover, they

more frequently have families with them and have children at school. English thus tends to become the language used in the home.

In general literacy, the north European races and the Finns show as high a standard as that of the native-born laborers, practically all being able to read and write, while other races have a large percentage of illiteracy. The races from south and east Europe, other than the Finns, with the largest percentages of literates, are the Slovenians, the North Italians, the Greeks, and the Montenegrins, approximately nine-tenths of whom read and write, while those with the largest percentage of illiterates among them are the South Italians, the Portuguese, the Russians, and the Croatians, of whom between one-third and two-fifths can not read and write.

Seasonal labor is demanded in several industries, notably railway maintenance of way, lumbering, fishing, and some parts of coal and ore mining. Recent immigrants who are unmarried, or whose wives have not yet left their native lands, are mostly engaged in this work. Most of these are drawn from south and east European races. Small proportions of the Greeks, Montenegrins, Russians, and Dalmatians so employed are married, and few of these have their wives with them. However, those races whose members have been in the United States for a comparatively long period of time show a greater proportion of married men and a greater number of their wives in the United States. Important among these are the Italians, Slovaks, Slovenians, and Finns. Men of these races who have families usually find their way into the more settled kinds of unskilled labor, such as that ordinarily offered at coal or ore mines and in the smelters. Of the few south and east Europeans who have risen to skilled or supervisory positions, a majority are married and have their wives in the United States. Their occupations are such as to encourage marriage, and, moreover, they are early immigrants in most cases and have thus had more time in which to bring their wives from their native land, if they did not do so at the time of immigration. The natives, north Europeans and English Canadians, on the other hand, are found principally in the skilled and supervisory occupations and in the more regular kinds of general labor, and are for the most part men with families. Furthermore, practically all of the married immigrants in this group have their wives in the United States. With the exception of a few youths and a number of men of migratory habits, members of these races who are employed in the industries studied may be regarded as settled laborers from the point of view of conjugal condition.

Not only are the north European and English Canadian immigrants a more settled class of labor and superior in point of literacy, but they show also a much greater civic interest than do the south and east Europeans. Comparing only those who have been in the United States for similar periods of time it is found that a much greater proportion of the former group than of the latter have taken out first. papers, or have become fully naturalized. The difference is marked among those whose period of residence is relatively long-showing that the north Europeans develop civic interest much more generally than do the south and east Europeans.

In general, similar classes of differences were found, though less extreme, between these two groups in the cities in which investigations were made. With the exception of the Greeks, Italians, Slove

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nians, Dalmatians, Bohemians, and the Russian Hebrews, the great majority of the south and east Europeans are laborers, while the occupational distribution of the north Europeans and their offspring is not essentially different from that of the native-born of native parents. The Greeks and Italians are numerously represented in petty business, and they and the Slovenians and Dalmatians are very conspicuous in conducting restaurants and similar establishments. In San Francisco, where the Italian colony is the largest on the Pacific coast, the North Italians have become an important element in the larger kinds of business and in the professions of the city. Most of the South Italians, however, are fishermen and on the whole occupy a distinctly inferior position. With the exception of the Greeks, all of the south and east Europeans have a large percentage of their families with them; many of their representatives have resided here for years, some have risen from the ranks of common labor, the great majority of them speak English, and with few exceptions show a tendency to leave the colonies of their own people for better residence districts. As a rule the children differ little from those of American stock, unless brought up in colonies such as those of the Russians in Los Angeles. The most conspicuous feature perhaps is the extent to which these various races have organized benevolent societies for the care of those who meet with misfortune. While these societies are frequently indicative of the fact that the race is far from being Americanized and while they frequently retard the process of assimilation, they encourage thrift and cause to rest upon the charitable institutions of the communities a much smaller burden than that imposed by the Irish and the native races.

According to the census of 1900, 27.31 per cent of those gainfully occupied in the Western division were engaged in agricultural pursuits. A large percentage of all of the north European races and their native-born offspring, the Irish and French excepted, and the Canadians, other than French, have exhibited a strong tendency to acquire farms. Of those one or both of whose parents were born in Great Britain, 25.64 per cent, in Ireland 15.07 per cent, in Canada (English) 24.39 per cent, in Germany 23.05 per cent, and in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark 28.3 per cent, were engaged in agriculture, the majority of them as farmers on their own account. Those of British descent constituted 39.4 per cent of all the farmers and overseers in Utah, 15.9 per cent of those in Idaho, 13.3 per cent of those in Wyoming, and 10.9 per cent of all in the Western division. The Germans constituted 11.8 per cent of the class in Washington, 10.7 per cent in Oregon, 9.7 per cent in Colorado, 10 per cent in California, and 8.7 per cent in the entire Western division. The Scandinavian element constituted 20.9 per cent in Utah, 10.8 per cent in Idaho, 9.1 per cent in Washington, and 6.5 per cent of those in the entire division. With the rapid migration of that race in more recent years, the percentages given for the division as a whole, and for Washington and Oregon particularly, have doubtless materially increased. The Canadians, being fewer in number, the Irish, not exhibiting a tendency to engage in farm work, and the French, being both few in number and not attracted to farm life, are not conspicuous as farmers.

a United States Census, 1900, Special Reports. Occupations. Tables 31 and 41.