words, and then do just as they have done before as if they were dead images and engines, moved only by the wheels of custom. We see also the reign or tyranny of custom, what it is. The Indians (I mean the sect of their wise men) lay themselves quietly upon a stack of wood, and so sacrifice themselves by fire: nay, the wives strive to be burned with the corpses of their husbands. The lads of Sparta, of ancient time were wont to be scourged upon the altar of Diana, without so much as quecking'. I remember, in the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's time of England, an Irish rebel condemned put up a petition to the deputy that he might be hanged in a withe, and not in a halter, because it had been so used with former rebels. There be monks in Russia, for penance, that, will sit a whole night in a vessel of water, till they be engaged with hard ice. Many examples may be put of the force of custom, both upon mind and body. Therefore, since custom is the principal magistrate of man's life, let men by all means endeavour to obtain good customs. Certainly, custom is most perfect when it beginneth in young years: this we call education, which is, in effect, but an early custom. So we see, in languages the tone is more pliant to all expressions and sounds, the joints are more supple to all feats of activity and motions in youth than afterwards; for it is true, the late learners cannot so well take the ply 2, except it be in some minds that have not suffered themselves to fix, but have kept themselves open and prepared to receive continual amendment, which is exceeding rare. But if the force of custom, simple and separate, be great, the force of custom, copulate and conjoined and collegiate 3, is far greater. For their example teacheth, company comforteth, emulation quickeneth, glory raiseth; so as in such places the force of custom is in his exaltation. Certainly, the great multiplication of virtues upon human nature resteth upon societies well ordained and disciplined. For commonwealths and good governments do nourish virtue grown, but do not much mend Queck (old) for flinch, shrink. 2 Ply (unused) for fold. 3 Collegiate (unused) for collected. His (old) for its. the seeds. But the misery is, that the most effectual means are now applied to the ends least to be desired. XL. OF FORTUNE. 2 66 It cannot be denied but outward accidents conduce much to fortune favour, opportunity, death of others, occasion fitting virtue. But chiefly, the mould of a man's fortune is in his own hands. "Faber quisque fortunæ suæ, saith the poet'. And the most frequent of external causes is, that the folly of one man is the fortune of another. For no man prospers so suddenly as by other's errors, Serpens, nisi serpentem comederit, non fit draco. "Overt and apparent virtues bring forth praises but there be secret and hidden virtues that bring forth fortunes, certain deliveries of a man's self, which have no name. The Spanish name, "desemboltura 3 " partly expresseth them when there be not stonds nor restiveness in a man's nature; but that the wheels of his mind keep way with the wheels of his fortune. For so Livy (after he had described Cato Major in these words, "In illo viro tantum robur corporis et animi fuit, ut, quocumque loco natus esset, fortunam sibi facturus videretur, ") falleth upon that that he had “ versatile ingenium. "Therefore, if a man look sharply and attentively, he shall see fortune for though she : 'Probably Appius Claudius the Blind Sallust says in the second letter of De Republica ordinanda: "Sed res docuit, id verum esse, quod in carminibus Appius ait, fabrum esse quemque fortunæ." Cicero speaks of Claudius's poem in his Tusculan Disputations (Book IV, 2) and terms it a Pythagorean poem. It ought perhaps to be mentioned here that in the Latin translation of the Essays, a version made under the author's superintendence, the word "poet" in this passage is rendered by comicus, from which it might be inferred that Plautus is meant. Plautus has a verse, in his Trinumus (Act II, Scene 1) the sense of which is nearly the same, but the terms of it are totally different. It is as follows: Nam sapiens quidem, pol, ipse fingit fortunam sibi. Our author cannot, notwithstanding the comicus, be reasonably supposed to have converted this verse into Faber quisque fortunæ suæ, which was an adage of the Romans. 2 Be for are. 3 Or rather desenvoltura, i. e. graceful gesture. Stond (old) for stand or stop. Keep way for to keep pace. 7 1 be blind, yet she is not invisible. The way of fortune is like the milky way in the sky; which is a meeting, or knot of a number of small stars; not seen asunder, but giving light together. So are there a number of little and scarce discerned virtues, or rather faculties and customs, that make men fortunate. The Italians note some of them, such as a man would little think. When they speak of one that cannot do amiss, they will throw in into his other conditions, that he hath "Poco di matto ';" and, certainly, there be not two more fortunate properties, than to have a little of the fool, and not too much of the honest. Therefore extreme lovers of their country, or masters, were never fortunate; neither can they be. For when a man placeth his thoughts without himself, he goeth not his own way. A hasty fortune maketh an enterpriser and remover; (the French hath it better, entreprenant, or "remuant"); but the exercised fortune maketh the able man. Fortune is to be honoured and respected, and it be but for her daughters, Confidence and Reputation; for those two felicity breedeth the first within a man's self; the latter in others towards him. All wise men, to decline the envy of their own virtues, use to ascribe them to Providence and Fortune; for so they may the better assume them: and, besides, it is greatness in a man to be the care of the higher powers. So Cæsar said to the pilot in the tempest, "Cæsarem portas, et fortunam ejus." So Sylla chose the name of "Felix," and not of Magnus:" and it hath been noted, that those that ascribe openly too much to their own wisdom and policy end unfortunate. It is written that Timotheus the Athenian, after he had, in the account he gave to the state of his government, often interlaced this speech, "and in this fortune had no part, "never prospered in any thing he undertook afterwards. Certainly there be whose fortune are like Homer's verses, that have a slide and easiness more than the verses of other poets as Plutarch saith of Timoleon's fortune in respect of that of Agesilaus or Epaminondas: and that this should be, no doubt it is much in a man's self. A little of the fool. 2 And (old) for if. 3 Slide (unusual, for fluency. 3 XLI. OF USURY 12. +. Many have made witty invectives against usury. They say that it is pity the devil should have God's part, which is the tithe that the usurer is the greatest sabbath-breaker, because his plough goeth every Sunday ;, that the usurer is the drone that Virgil speaketh of: that the usurer breaketh the first law that was made for mankind after the fall, which was, "in sudore vultus tui comedes panem tuum; not, "in sudore vultus alieni;” that usurers should have orange-tawny bonnets, because they do judaize; that it is against nature for money to beget money, and the like. I say this only, that usury 66 is a concessum propter duritiem cordis : for since there must be borrowing and lending, and men are so hard of heart as they will not lend freely, usury must be permitted. Some others have made suspicious and cunning propositions of banks, discovery of Usury for taking of interest. 2 Our author was one of the earliest writers who treated the question of the interest. of money with the enlightened views of a statesman and an economist. The taking of interest was considered. in his time immoral. Laws on this matter are extremely ancient. Moses forbids the Jews to require interest of each other. "Thou shalt not lend upon usury to thy brother, usury of money, usury of victuals, usury of any thing that is lent upon usury: "Unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usury; but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon usury." Deuteronomy, XXL, 19, 20. Among the Greeks the rate of interest was settled by agreement between the borrower and the lender, without any interference of the the customary rate varied from 10 to 33 per cent. law; The Romans enacted laws against usurious interest; but their legal interest admitted by the law of the Twelve Tables was, according 12 per cent, or to others, one twelfth of the capital, i.e. 8 per cent. Justinian reduced it to 6 per cent. to some, In England the legal rate of interest was in Henry VII,'s reign 10 per cent; it was reduced in. 1624 to 8 per cent; it was further diminished in 1672 to 6 per cent; and definitively, in 1713, fixed at 5 per cent the ordinary rate of interest throughout Europe. In France the rates of interest have been nearly similar at the same periods. men's estates, and other inventions; but few have spoken of usury usefully. It is good to set before us the incommodities and commodities' of usury, that the good may be either weighed out, or culled out; and warily to provide, that while we make forth to that which is better, we meet not with that which is worse. 2 2. The discommodities of usury are first, that it make fewer merchants. For were it not for this lazy trade of usury, money would not lie still, but it would in great part be employed upon merchandizing, which is the“ vena porta of wealth in a state. The second, that it makes poor merchants; for as a farmer cannot husband his ground so well if he sit at a great rent, so the merchant cannot drive his trade so well, if he sit at great usury. The third is incident to the other two; and that is, the decay of customs of kings, or estates, which ebb or flow with merchandizing. The fourth, that it bringeth the treasure of a realm or state into a few hands; for the usurer being at certainties, and the other at uncertainties, at the end of the game most of the money will be in the box; and ever a state flourisheth when wealth is more equally spread. The fifth, that it beats down the price of land for the employment of money is chiefly either merchandizing or purchasing; and usury waylays both. The sixth, that it doth dull and damp all industries, improvements, and new inventions, wherein money would be stirring, if it were not for this slug. The last, that it is the canker and ruin of many men's estates, which in process of time breeds a public poverty. 3. On the other side, the commodities of usury are : first, that howsoever usury in some respect hindereth merchandising, yet in some other it advanceth it; for it is certain that the greatest part of trade is driven by young merchants upon borrowing at interest; so as if the usurer either call in, or keep back his money, there will ensue presently a great stand of |