unions have little hold there; those listed are chiefly concerned with men who work outside of the factories, and it is within the factories that the majority of the city's working population is found. The factories do not welcome the labor union; all of the more important industrial plants are "open shops," in which unions exert little influence. The attitude of the races employed in the factories appears to be largely one of indifference toward the labor unions. The wage-earner appears to get along without union help and manifests little interest in the unions. Immigrants do belong to unions-it is said that the number was larger some years ago—and probably most of the unions in the city would welcome immigrant members. But the field is not promising for union proselyting and the unions continue to be relatively unimportant in the factories. The smallness of the extent to which the wage-earners are members of labor organizations is exhibited by the following table, which shows, by general nativity and race of individual, affiliation with trade unions of males in the households studied who were 21 years of age or over and who were working for wages.

TABLE 186.-Affiliation with trade unions of males 21 years of age or over working for wages, by general nativity and race of individual.

Of 1,115 males 21 years of age or over shown in the above table, 2.9 per cent are affiliated with trade unions. The male employees who are native-born of foreign father show 5.9 per cent, the foreignborn show 2.8 per cent, and the employees who are native-born whites of native father show only 1.3 per cent who are affiliated with trade unions. Of the employees who are native-born of foreign father, those of German parentage show 12 per cent who are affiliated with trade unions. The employees whose fathers were born in other

specified countries are not computed owing to the small number involved. Of the foreign-born employees, the Swedes show 11.7 per cent, the South Italians 4 per cent, the Germans 3.2 per cent, and the Lithuanians 1.9 per cent, who are affiliated with trade unions. The Slovaks and Poles show less than 1 per cent, while none of the Russian and Ruthenian employees are affiliated with trade unions.

SHIFTING TENDENCIES OF THE LABOR SUPPLY.

One of the objectionable features of the present labor market is its shifting character; the tendency to change from one factory to another is much in evidence, and some of the large factories have had difficulty in obtaining satisfactory labor which would become competent and remain at work. This is illustrated by the following statement, showing the changes in the operating force of one representative factory during a single month of the year 1908:

Changes of employees in a factory in Community C during a single month of 1908. [This factory normally employs about 1,000 persons.]

There is almost no local prejudice against the immigrant who has become so familiar an element in the life of the community that he is accepted as permanent. In the factories there is no apparent discrimination against him, although in social life he is usually restricted to his own or kindred races.

CHAPTER V.

HOUSING AND LIVING CONDITIONS.

Rent in its relation to standard of living-Boarders and lodgers-Size of apartments occupied-Size of households Congestion-Housing and segregation [Text Tables 187 to 198 and General Tables 145 to 156].

RENT IN ITS RELATION TO STANDARD OF LIVING.

The monthly rent payments of the households the heads of which are employed in Community C are chiefly significant in their bearing upon the standard of living, because of congestion within the households arising from the practice of crowding the apartments in order to reduce the per capita rent outlay. The first table presented in this connection, which immediately follows, shows, by general nativity and race of head of household, the average rent per month paid per apartment, per room, and per person.

TABLE 187.-Average rent per month, by general nativity and race of head of household. (STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

The preceding table shows that for 530 households the average monthly rent per apartment is $9.87, the average rent per month per room is $2.41, and the average rent per month per person is $1.81. The households whose heads are native whites born of native father report the highest average rent per month per apartment, per room and per person; households the heads of which are native-born of foreign father report the next highest rent in each instance; and the households the heads of which are of foreign birth the lowest monthly rent per apartment, per room, and per person. The house48296° -VOL 17-11-18

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holds whose heads are Swedes show the highest average rent per apartment, per room, and per person, the households the heads of which are Slovaks show the lowest average monthly rent per apartment, and households the heads of which are Ruthenians the lowest average rent per month per room and per person.

The range in monthly rents for apartments is set forth in the following table, which shows, by general nativity and race of head of household, the percentage of households paying each specified rent per month per apartment.

TABLE 188.-Per cent of households paying each specified rent per month per apartment, by general nativity and race of head of household.

(STUDY OF HOUSEHOLDS.)

[This table includes only races with 20 or more households reporting. The totals, however, are for all races.]

Of 530 households shown in the above table, 0.9 per cent pay under $5 rent per month per apartment, 20.6 per cent pay under $7.50, 51.7 per cent pay under $10, and 82.5 per cent pay under $12.50. The average rent per month per apartment for all households studied is $9.87. Over 4 per cent of the households whose heads are nativeborn of foreign father pay under $5 rent per month per apartment as contrasted with less than 1 per cent of the households the heads of which are foreign-born and no households the heads of which are native-born whites of native father. The households the heads of which are foreign-born show a considerably higher percentage paying under $7.50, under $10, and under $12.50 rent per month per apartment than households the heads of which are native-born of foreign father and those whose heads are native whites born of native father, which follow in the order named.

The households the heads of which are native whites born of native father report an average rent per apartment of $13.42 as contrasted with $12.28, which is the average monthly rental in households whose heads are native-born of foreign father, and $9.33, which is the average monthly rental per apartment paid by households the heads of which are of foreign birth. The households the heads of which are Slovaks, Ruthenians, and Lithuanians, show small proportions paying under $5 rent per month per apartment, as contrasted with no households