developed occupation of "shot-firer" in bituminous and anthracite coal mines. The mine worker in this occupation prepares and discharges the blasts or shots for bringing down the coal. Formerly each miner did his own blasting, but with the employment of the untrained southern and eastern Europeans in the mines, it was soon found that the safety of the operating forces and the maintenance of the quality of the output required that blasting should be done by experienced native American or older immigrant employees.

Immigration Has Produced Unsatisfactory Conditions of Employment

As to the effect of recent immigration upon native American and older immigrant wage-earners in the United States, it may be stated, in the first place, that the lack of industrial training and experience of the recent immigrant before coming to the United States, together with his illiteracy and inability to speak English, has had the effect of exposing the original employees to unsafe and unsanitary working conditions, or has led to the imposition of conditions of employment which the native American or older immigrant employees have considered unsatisfactory and in some cases unbearable. When the older employees have found dangerous and unhealthy conditions prevailing in the mines and manufacturing establishments and have protested, the recent immigrant employees, usually through ignorance of mining or other working methods, have manifested a willingness to accept the alleged unsatisfactory conditions. In a large number of cases the lack of training and experience of the

southern and eastern European affects only his own safety. On the other hand, his ignorant acquiescence in dangerous and unsanitary working conditions may make the continuance of such conditions possible and thus becomes a menace to a part or to the whole of an operating force of an industrial establishment. In mining, the presence of an untrained employee may constitute an element of danger to the entire body of workmen. There seems to be a direct causal relation between the extensive employment of recent immigrants in American mines and the extraordinary increase within recent years in the number of mining accidents. It is an undisputed fact that the greatest number of accidents in bituminous coal mines arise from two causes: (1) the recklessness, and (2) the ignorance and inexperience, of employees. When the lack of training of the recent immigrant abroad is considered in connection with the fact that he becomes a workman in the mines immediately upon his arrival in this country, and when it is recalled that a large proportion of the new arrivals are not only illiterate and unable to read any precautionary notices posted in the mines, but are also unable to speak English and are consequently without ability to comprehend instructions intelligently, the inference is plain that the employment of recent immigrants has caused a deterioration in working conditions.

No complete statistics have been compiled as to the connection between accidents and races employed, but the figures available clearly indicate the conclusion that there has been a direct relation between the employment of untrained foreigners and the prevalence of mining casualties. The mining inspectors of the several coal-producing States, the United States Geo

logical Survey, and the older employees in the industry, also bear testimony in this respect to the effect of the employment of the southern and eastern European. The opinion of the Geological Survey is of especial interest and may be briefly quoted:

"Another important factor in the United States is to be found in the nationality of the miners. Most of the men are foreign-born, a large proportion of them are unable to understand English freely, and a still larger number are unable to read or write that language. Some of them are inexperienced, and do not take proper precautions either for their own safety or that of others. This becomes a most serious menace unless they are restrained by properly enforced regulations."*

THE EFFECT OF THE RECENT IMMIGRANT UPON

STANDARDS OF LIVING

The extensive employment of recent immigrants has brought about living conditions and a standard of living with which the older employees have been unable or have found it extremely difficult to compete. This fact may be readily inferred from what has already been said relative to the methods of domestic economy of immigrant households and the cost of living of their members.

THE IMMIGRANT AND LABOR ORGANIZATIONS

The entrance into the operating forces of the mines and manufacturing establishments, in such large numbers, of the races of recent immigration, has also had the effect of weakening the labor organizations of

*Bulletin 333 of the United States Geological Survey, entitled "Coal Mining Accidents: Their Causes and Prevention."

the original employees, and in some of the industries has caused their entire demoralization and disruption. This has been due to the character of the recent immigrant labor supply, and to the fact that so large numbers of recent immigrants have found employment in American industries within such a short period of time. On account of lack of industrial training and experience, low standards of living, as compared with native American wage-earners, their necessitous condition while seeking employment in this country and their tractability, southern and eastern Europeans, as already noted, have been willing to accept the existing rates of compensation and working conditions. The thrift and industry of recent immigrants have also made them unwilling to enter into labor disputes involving loss of time, or to join labor organizations to which it was necessary to pay regular dues. As a consequence, they have not affiliated with labor organizations unless compelled to do so as a preliminary step toward acquiring work; and then, after becoming members of the labor union, they have manifested but little interest in the tenets or policy of the organization. In the instances where they have united with the labor organizations, on the occasion of strikes or labor dissensions, they have usually refused to maintain membership for any extended period of time, thus rendering difficult the unionization of the industry or occupation in which they are engaged.

Furthermore, the fact that recent immigrants are usually of non-English-speaking races, and their high degree of illiteracy, have made their absorption by the labor organizations very slow and expensive. In many cases, too, the conscious policy of the employers of mixing the races in different departments and divi

sions of labor, in order, by a diversity of tongues, to prevent concerted action on the part of employees, has made unionization of the immigrant almost impossible. This custom, of course, is in no way inconsistent with the opposite practise found in different circumstances of grouping the races separately to prevent disturbances arising from race hostilities. (See page

224.

The significant result of the whole situation has been that the influx of the southern and eastern Europeans has been too rapid to permit of their ready absorption by the labor organizations which were in existence before their arrival. In some industries the influence and power of the labor unions are concerned only with those occupations in which the competition of the southern and eastern European has been only indirectly or remotely felt, and consequently the labor organizations have not been very seriously affected. In the occupations and industries in which the pressure of the competition of the recent immigrant has been directly felt, either because the nature of the work was such as to permit of the immediate employment of the immigrant or because the invention of improved machinery made his employment possible in occupations which formerly required training and apprenticeship, the labor organizations have been, in a great many cases, completely overwhelmed and disrupted. In other industries and occupations in which the elements of skilled training and experience were requisite, such as in certain divisions of the glass-manufacturing industry, the effect of the employment of recent immigrants upon labor organizations has not been followed by such injurious results.