fering in its details in the several States. The outlines of the executive department, nevertheless, are nearly the same in all the States. Every State has a governor (thirtythree States have a lieutenant-governor), a secretary of state and a treasurer; almost every State has a comptroller, or auditor, an attorney-general and a superintendent of education. The length of the terms of service of these officers, the manner of their election or appointment, and their qualifications and salaries are regulated by the constitution or by statute. Their duties, which do not vary widely from State to State, are as follows:

I. The Governor. (1) The first duty of the governor is to take care that the laws are faithfully executed. This may mean much or little. In reference to private law, the law that regulates the relations between man and man, and in reference to the peace and good order of the State, it means much, for the governor is commander-in-chief of the military forces of the State, and he can call upon the soldiers to assist him in enforcing the judgment of a court or in suppressing riots and disorderly proceedings (p. 253). In reference to the laws regulating the business of the special departments it frequently means but little, for, as we have seen, the officers of these departments are often elected independently of the governor and are themselves the authorized executors of the laws relating to their respective departments, and whether they administer the law well or ill the governor has no control over them.

(2) Another duty of the governor is to transmit to the legislature a message, informing it of the condition of affairs within the State and suggesting such legislation as he may deem wise. The legislature, however, is not bound to follow the suggestions made in the message or even to consider them. If the legislature is not in session and the governor thinks certain legislation urgent, he may summon it to meet in extra session and lay before it the measures that demand immediate consideration.

(3) In many States the governor has the pardoning

power which it is his duty to exercise when he thinks a person has been unjustly convicted of crime. His pardon may be absolute or he may commute the punishment. For good reason he may grant reprieves. In a few States the power of pardon, commutation and reprieve is not left to the governor, but is vested in a special body of officers known as the board of pardons.

(4) In every State it is the duty of the governor to appoint many officials whose selection is not otherwise provided for. When an elective official dies or resigns before his term ends the governor fills the vacancy by appointing some one to serve until another election is held. When vacancies occur in the representation of the State in Congress, he issues writs for a new election in the case of Representatives (12) and makes temporary appointments in the case of Senators (17).

(5) It is the duty of the governor to check hasty or corrupt or unwise legislation by interposing his veto. Experience seems to prove that the possession of the veto power enables the governor to exercise a wholesome restraint upon the legislature, and accordingly the veto power is given to him in all the States but one.

(6) The governor performs numerous social duties. He opens fairs, dedicates public buildings, presents diplomas to the graduates of normal schools and colleges, and honors important celebrations and meetings with his presence.

II. The Lieutenant-governor. This officer serves when the governor is out of the State or is incapacitated for duty. He is ex officio president of the Senate, and when a vacancy occurs in the governorship he succeeds to the office. In those States where there is no lieutenant-governor the president of the Senate usually succeeds to the governorship in case of a vacancy.

III. The secretary of state records the official acts of the governor and files the laws passed by the legislature. He has charge of all State papers, of the journals of the legislature, and of the historical documents, statuary, paintings,

relics, etc., owned by the State. This officer may properly be called the chief clerk of the executive department.

IV. The State comptroller or auditor manages the financial business of the State. He prepares plans for the improvement and management of revenue, reports estimates of the revenue and expenditure of the State, and enforces the prompt collection of taxes. He keeps an account of all the money paid into the treasury and all drawn from it. Not a dollar can be taken from the treasury without his order. As a rule it is his duty to see that those charged with the collection of revenue of the State are responsible persons and are properly bonded. In a few States the comptroller serves on one or more State boards.

V. The State treasurer has in his keeping the money paid into the State treasury. His principal duties are to receive the State funds, place them where they will be safe, and pay them out as he is ordered by the comptroller. Like the comptroller, the treasurer sometimes serves upon State boards.

VI. The attorney-general is the law officer of the State. He appears in court for the State when it needs the services of a lawyer, and he gives legal advice to executive officers when he is called upon to do so.

VII. The superintendent of public instruction stands at the head of the public-school system of the State. He reports to the governor or to the legislature the condition of educational affairs throughout the State, visits teachers' institutes and other educational meetings, and delivers lectures upon educational topics, inspects schools, suggests methods of teaching and courses of instruction and promotes the cause of education in many ways. In some States he prescribes the qualifications of teachers and issues their certificates, and supervises the distribution of the school funds. In a few States the executive authority in reference to the public schools is vested in the State Board of Education. Where this is the case the superintendent of instruction is simply an agent of the board.

The above officers are found in almost every State. The governor and lieutenant-governor are always elected by the people, but the method of choosing the others varies; sometimes the people elect, sometimes the governor appoints and sometimes the legislature elects. In addition to these principal officers we find in the different States such minor officers and boards as special conditions may require. The titles of these suggest the nature of their duties and may be mentioned without comment:

State insurance commissioner; State librarian; State commissioner of agriculture; State inspector of mines; State commissioner of immigration; State surveyor; State tax commissioner; State fire marshall; State factory inspector; State commissioner of fisheries; State dairy inspector; State inspector of steam boilers; adjutant-general; State vaccine physician; State board of health; State board of medical examiners; State board of public works; State board of dentistry; State board of railroad commissioners; State liquor license commissioners; State board of charities; State board of pardons.

No State has all of the above officers, but every State has a few of them. Besides the major and minor officials that have been mentioned there are in the service of the State such assistants, secretaries, clerks and employees of various kinds as may be necessary for the efficient working of the several departments.

The Concentration of Power in the Hands of the Governor. Many writers criticize the organization of the executive departments of our State governments. The powers accorded to the governor seem to them to be entirely too small. They contend (1) that the chief State officials should not be the governor's colleagues, each managing his part of the State's business to suit himself, but that they should be his subordinate and dependent assistants; (2) that if you scatter power, you scatter and weaken responsibility; (3) that if you will place the whole power of administration in the hands of the governor, giving him the appointment of all State officials and the power of removing them,

you will have better government, for you will have a person (the governor) whom you can hold responsible.

Others object to such a concentration of power in the governor's hands, claiming: (1) that the mischief that could be done by a bad governor with great powers might easily prove to be greater than our present evils, which are really not great; (2) that we should not risk giving the most extensive power to one man unless we are sure that the man has knowledge and skill co-extensive with his powers-in other words, that omnipotence implies omniscience; (3) that concentration of great power in the hands of rulers has not in the past worked for the happiness of mankind.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. How are the executive functions of the State government distributed?

2. Name the State officials that are found in almost every State. 3. What are the duties of the governor?

4. What are the duties of the lieutenant-governor of the secretary of State of the State comptroller? of the State treasurer of the attorney-general? of the superintendent of public instruction?

5. Name some of the minor officers of the State executive department. 6. What services are rendered by the State executive department? 7. Give reasons for and against the concentration of power in the hands of the governor.

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. Which of the higher officials of this State mentioned in the text derive their authority from the constitution? From what source do the others derive their authority?

2. State the qualifications, term of office, salary and chief duties of the several State officials provided for in the constitution; also state which of these are elected by the people and which are appointed.

3. Which of the minor officials mentioned in the text are found in this State? Why do not all the States have minor officials of the same character?

4. Has the governor of this State the veto power? If so, how may his veto be overcome?

5. Under what circumstances may the governor remove an official? 6. Is the tendency in this State to give much or little power to the governor? Is this tendency fortunate or unfortunate?