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ment with the national government. In the halls of Congress have been done the things which have made the United States the country it is. As in the past Madison, Clay, Webster, Calhoun, John Quincy Adams, Sumner, Thurman, Blaine, workers in the House and Senate, shaped the policies and directed the course of the American nation, so in the present the fortunes of the Union are in the hands of the men we send to Congress. While we keep statesmen there we are safe, but if we should allow Congress to become a body of political gamesters we would doubtless advance rapidly to national ruin.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. What problems of representation arose in the Convention of 1787? 2. Explain the difference between the national principle of representation and the federal principle.

3. What was the Connecticut compromise?

4. In what respect is Congress a national body? In what respect is it a federal body?

5. Why is it likely that the equality of the States in the Senate will not be disturbed?

6. In what manner are representatives apportioned to the several States?

7. Give an account of the election of representatives.

8. Give an account of the election of United States senators.

9. Why is Congress the center of national politics?

SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

1. Show from the history of the times that the people in 1787 needed a government which would accomplish just such objects as are mentioned in the preamble (1).

2. What words in the preamble reveal the democratic feature of our Constitution? What words its federal feature?

3. In referring to the government which has its seat at Washington, why do we sometimes speak of it as being federal and sometimes as being national?

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4. Give the history of the word "gerrymandering.' Is there any sign of gerrymandering in the boundaries of the congressional districts of your State? Point out the wrongs of gerrymandering. Bound the congressional district in which you live.

5. By referring to the Constitution answer the following questions, and give reasons for the constitutional provisions: How is a member

of the House of Representatives elected, and what is the length of his term of office (3) What are the qualifications of a member of the House as to age, citizenship and residence (5)? When is a person qualified to vote for representatives in the House (4)? How is a vacancy in the House of Representatives filled (12)? What are the qualifications of a senator as to age, citizenship and residence (18)? When does the Vice-President have a right to vote in the Senate (20)? Who presides at an impeachment trial when the President has been impeached (22) If the right to membership in Congress is contested how is the question decided (26)? How is the compensation of members of Congress determined (32) What special privileges do members of Congress enjoy (33)? What circumstance will prevent a member of Congress from receiving an appointment to office under the federal government (34)? What circumstance will disqualify a man for membership in Congress (35) ?

6. Should a member of the lower House consider the interests of his district as being of more importance than those of the nation? Should a senator place the interests of his State above those of the nation?

7. Congressmen receive twenty cents for every mile of travel to Washington and return to their homes. What is the amount of the mileage of the member of the House who represents your district?

8. The Oregon Plan of Electing Senators. In Oregon voters express their choice for United States Senators at the same time that they vote for members of the legislature, and the members of the legislature, in accordance with a pledge previously made, simply vote for the senatorial candidate who has received the greatest number of votes at the polls. This plan has also been adopted by Nebraska. It plainly takes the election of Senators away from the legislature and gives it to the people. What do you think of the Oregon plan?

Topics for Special Work.-The House of Representatives: 7, 33-70. The Senate: 7, 79-125. Rights of Senators and Representatives: 6, 182-186. An Apportionment Bill: 30, 148-149. The House of Representatives and the House of Commons: 30, 149-156. Popular Election of Senators: 30, 156-162.

XVII

CONGRESS AT WORK

The Assembling of Congress and its Adjournment. Every year on the first Monday in December (25) Congress assembles in the Capitol at Washington, the Senate occupying the north wing of the building and the House the south wing. It convenes and adjourns by virtue of constitutional authority, and not by virtue of a summons or an order from the executive.

The self-convening and the self-adjourning feature of Congress is a valuable item of American civil liberty. The political history of England had taught the framers that it was dangerous to make the assemblage and adjournment of the legislature dependent upon the action of the executive. Kings had refused to call Parliament together when the country needed its services, and had dissolved it as soon as it showed opposition to the royal will. So the framers placed the assembling and adjournment of Congress quite beyond the power of the executive (25).

The President, however, may on extraordinary occasions. convene Congress in an extra session (100), and he may also adjourn Congress if the two Houses cannot themselves agree upon a day for adjournment (101).

When making laws the two Houses must carry on work during the same period of time, although either House may sit alone for a period not exceeding three days (31).

The first Congress began its legal existence March 4, 1789, and expired at the hour of noon March 4, 1791, when the term of the first elected representative ended; the second Congress came into power March 4, 1791, and ended its

career March 4, 1793; the third Congress began March 4, 1793, and ended March 4, 1795; and thus on to the present time. From this we learn (1) that Congresses are numbered according to the biennial periods for which representatives are elected, and (2) that the legal existence of Congress begins on March 4 following the election of representatives and ends March 4 two years later. Representatives are elected in November,1 but, unless an extra session is called, they do not actually enter upon their duties until the December of the first year of their legal term-more than a year after their election. If a Congress should choose to do so, it could sit in continuous session from the time it first meets to the expiration of its term. In practice the work of a Congress is done in two regular sessions. The first session begins when a Congress assembles in December for the first time and ends late in the spring or early in the summer of the following year. This is the long session. The second or short session begins when the Congress assembles in December for the second time and ends at twelve o'clock meridian the following March 4. Extra sessions begin on a date fixed by the President and end at the pleasure of Congress.

The House at Work. The House consists of nearly four hundred men, ambitious, enthusiastic, and for the most part in the prime of life. Every member has his heart set upon the passage of at least one bill, while many a member has a dozen which he wishes to push through. In the first few days after the assembling of the House several thousand bills are introduced. The ruling purpose of the individual member is to get his own measures passed. His reputation as a useful public servant, and even his seat in Congress may depend upon his success in this matter. Every member, therefore, strives with all his might to get his favorite measure singled out and brought to

1 By a special provision of the law Maine and Vermont are permitted to elect their representatives in September and Oregon in June.

a consideration and a vote. But every bill must be duly discussed and must be disposed of in an orderly, decent way.

Amid the stormy conflicts of interest which are bound to arise in the House, and in the confusion and strife which are attendant upon the proceedings of such a large and virile body, how can business be conducted in due form and order? The answer to this question involves the consideration of (1) the speakership, (2) the committee system, and (3) the rules of the House.

(1) The Speakership. When the members of a new House assemble for the first time the clerk of the previous House calls them to order, causes a roll to be called, and, if a quorum (27) is present, invites the House to proceed with the election of a Speaker (13) who is always chosen from among the members of the House. After the election of the Speaker the other officers of the House, the sergeantat-arms, the clerk and the doorkeeper are elected, and the work of the session begins.

The character of the proceedings of the House depends largely upon the man selected as Speaker. The duties of the Speaker are defined by the rules of the House. He preserves order, he signs all bills, he decides questions of parliamentary law, he puts questions to the House to be voted upon, and he recognizes those members whom he regards as being entitled to be heard upon the floor. No member who fails to secure the recognition of the Speaker is entitled to be heard. This power of recognition, therefore, is most important.

(2) The Committees. A large legislative body in full and open session cannot look into the merits and discuss all the items of every proposed bill. There must be a method of sifting proposed measures and rejecting worthless and absurd propositions so that the attention of the legislature may be given to serious and important matters. From time immemorial this preparation of measures has been accomplished through the agency of committees, small groups of members, to each of which is assigned the duty of attending to a particular branch of legislation.

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