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percentage, having 2 or more persons per room.

Households the heads of which are Ruthenians, Poles, and South Italians show small proportions having 3 or more persons per room, as contrasted with no households the heads of which are Germans, Lithuanians, Slovaks, and Swedes having this number of persons per room.

The following table shows the persons per sleeping room, by general nativity and race of head of household:

TABLE 197.--Persons per sleeping room, by general nativity and race of head of household.

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The average

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The house

Of 686 households studied, 72.9 per cent have 2 or more persons sleeping room, 27.1 per cent have 3 or more persons, 4.8 per cent have 4 or more persons, 0.7 per cent have 5 or more persons, and 0.1 per cent have 6 or more persons per sleeping room. all households studied is 2.26 persons per sleeping room. holds whose heads are foreign-born show a considerably higher percentage, having 2 or more, 3 or more, and 4 or more persons per sleeping room than the households the heads of which are native whites born of native father and those whose heads are native-born of foreign father which follow in the order named; the last mentioned showing no households having 4 or more persons per sleeping room. The households the heads of which are of foreign birth show less than 1 per cent having 5 or more and 6 or more persons per sleeping room, as contrasted with no households whose heads are of the other nativity groups having this number of persons per sleeping room.

Of the households the heads of which are foreign-born, those whose heads are Poles show the highest percentage and those whose heads are German the lowest per cent, having 2 or more and 3 or more persons per sleeping room. The households the heads of which are Slovaks show the highest, and those whose heads are Swedes the

lowest, percentage, having 4 or more persons per sleeping room. The households the heads of which are Slovaks show the highest percentage, having 5 or more persons per sleeping room, while no households the heads of which are Lithuanians, Poles, or Swedes have this number of persons per sleeping room. The households the heads of which are South Italians alone show a small proportion having 6 or more persons per sleeping room. Households whose heads are foreignborn show a considerably higher average number of persons per sleeping room than the households the heads of which are native-born of foreign father, or those whose heads are native whites born of native father. Of the households the heads of which are native-born of foreign father, those whose heads are of English parentage show the highest average and those whose heads are of German parentage the lowest average number of persons per sleeping room. Of the households the heads of which are of foreign birth, those whose heads are Poles show the highest average and those whose heads are of German parentage the lowest average number of persons per sleeping room. The final table of the series, which is next presented, indicates the effect upon living arrangements of congestion within the households studied by showing, according to general nativity and race of head of household, the number and per cent of households regularly sleeping in all except each specified number of rooms.

The following table shows the number and percentage of households regularly sleeping in all except each specified number of rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household.

TABLE 198.-Number and per cent of households regularly sleeping in all except each specified number of rooms, by general nativity and race of head of household.

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The average number of rooms and the average number of sleeping rooms per household in the 686 households studied in this community is 4.29 and 2.38, respectively. Those households the heads of which were foreign-born show an average number of rooms per household of 4.16 and an average number of sleeping rooms of 2.43, as compared with 4.97 and 2.07, respectively, for those households the heads of which were native-born of foreign father, and 5.12 and 2.04, respectively, for those households the heads of which were native-born of native father white. Among those households the heads of which were foreign-born, the average number of rooms per household range from 5.21 for the German to 3.38 for the Slovak households, and the average number of sleeping rooms from 2.91 for the Russian to 2.02 for the Slovak households; while among the households the heads of which were native-born of foreign father the average number of rooms per household ranges from 5.20 for the German to 4.60 for the Irish, and the average number of sleeping rooms from 2.20 for the Irish to 1.90 for the English households.

As regards sleeping arrangements, it will be noted that of the 686 households studied 2.3 per cent sleep in all rooms, 39.7 per cent in all except one room, and 29.9 per cent in all except two rooms. Those households the heads of which were foreign-born show a proportion sleeping in each specified number of rooms that varies only slightly from the proportion shown in the total for all households. On the other hand, no households the heads of which were nativeborn of foreign father or native-born of native father white sleep in all rooms or in all except one room, while the proportions of these households sleeping in all except two rooms amount to 33.3 and 25 per cent, respectively.

Among the households the heads of which were foreign-born, no South Italian, Lithuanian, or Swedish, and only 1.1 per cent of the Slovak and 1.4 per cent of the German, as compared with 6.4 per cent of the Ruthenian and 10.8 per cent of the Polish households, sleep in all rooms. Of those households sleeping in all except one room, the Ruthenians with 87.2 per cent show a slightly larger proportion than the Polish, a much larger proportion than the Slovak, and a very much larger proportion than the South Italian or Lithuanian households, the last named showing 48.4 per cent, while the proportions of the Swedish and German households sleeping in this specified number of rooms amount to 7.2 and 7 per cent, respectively. As regards those households sleeping in all except two rooms, the proportion of Swedish households, 47.7 per cent, is slightly in excess of that of the Lithuanian, considerably in excess of the Slovak, and largely in excess of German or South Italian households, the Polish and Ruthenian households showing the smallest proportions sleeping in this specified number of rooms, or 9.6 and 6.4 per cent, respectively.

HOUSING AND SEGREGATION.

The tendency to congregate in certain localities is most noticeable among the Poles and Lithuanians. Polish segregation is very marked, and the Polish section of the city is a well-defined unit. The Lithuanian colony is not so distinct as that of the Poles, for numbers of the people live in other sections of the city; but the Lithuanians have to a large extent segregated themselves. The Ger

man and Swedish races originally formed rather clearly marked foreign colonies, but they are now scattered over the city, so that it can not be said that there is at present any real German or Swedish colony. In certain parts of the city clusters of German families are found, and the same is true of the Swedes; thus there are several German and Swedish colonies, but no one colony in which all the Germans or all the Swedes live. Many of the Italians tend to congregate in certain localities, but numbers of them live elsewhere, and a distinct Italian community does not exist. The other immigrant races exhibit no marked tendency to gather in segregated communities, but are to be found rather widely scattered throughout the city. There are localities in which the population is almost wholly foreign, but in these the different races mingle and do not tend to form distinct racial groups.

With the Poles the church is the centralizing agency, and about it the Polish colony has grown up. The fact, too, that the majority of the Poles come from the same region (Russian Poland) has doubtless had much to do with their congregating in the same locality. The Lithuanians, like the Poles, have made the church the center about which many of them have congregated. Segregation among the other races is not marked enough to permit of their treatment as foreign colonies.

To compare the houses occupied by the immigrants of the foreign colonies with those of natives in the same grade of employment is manifestly impossible, as the only two real foreign colonies are the Polish and Lithuanian, and these races are in general found in the lower unskilled factory occupations in which the Americans are exceedingly rare. With the exception of the Germans and Swedes, none of the immigrant races which exhibit any tendency at all toward segregation are to be found in large numbers in the same grades of employment as the Americans.

Of all the immigrant races it may be said that length of residence works improvement in housing conditions. The higher standard of most of the American population causes the immigrant to improve his manner of living as he becomes more and more Americanized. This change is probably slowest among the Italians and Poles and most rapid among the Germans and Swedes. Such a change, however, does undoubtedly take place among all of the immigrant races, and results in an improvement of the condition of the immigrant. If the population were not constantly augmented by new immigrant arrivals, it would no doubt raise the standard of living of the community as a whole.

Children of immigrants exhibit a tendency to remain in the same localities as their parents. This of course applies most to the Polish and Lithuanian races, which have distinct colonies; and of these races the second generation of mature years is still inconsiderable in numbers. The children of German and Swedish immigrants are not held by such close racial ties as the Poles and Lithuanians, and while many of them do continue in the same localities as their parents others go elsewhere, and the partial disintegration of what were once foreign colonies has resulted.

Natives in grades of employment with the majority of the immigrants are so rare that an authoritative comparison of the boarding houses occupied by the two classes is hardly possible. The Poles,

Lithuanians, Italians, Slovaks, Armenians, Ruthenians, Russians, and Greeks may be eliminated from such comparison as being for the most part engaged in the lower forms of employment rarely entered by Americans. Numbers of the Germans and Swedes, however, are found in the more skilled occupations, and of them some crude generalizations can be made. The German and Swedish boarding house compares favorably with the American in point of cleanliness, character of accommodations, and absence of overcrowding. More than any other immigrant races (excepting the Irish, English, and Scotch, whose Americanization is so rapid that their treatment as immigrant races is hardly possible) the Germans and Swedes exhibit high standards of living and rapid adjustment to American modes of life.

The boarding houses of the Poles, Lithuanians, Italians, and other races of southern Europe are of a class inferior to those of the Germans and Swedes; but the wage-earners of these races are engaged, in the main, in far less skilled and lower-paid occupations, so that economic necessity works to keep their standard of living lower.

Among the Poles, the boarding houses in which full board (lodging and food) is furnished are rare. Most of the Polish "boarders" are hardly more than lodgers; yet this difference from the usual conception of "lodger" exists: The lodging house is also an eating house, in that all food is cooked and eaten there. Each lodger, however, pays for his own provisions, which are cooked by the housewife; she does the buying also, carrying each lodger's "store books" with her on her marketing tours. For his lodging and for the services of the housewife (buying and cooking his food and washing his clothes) the lodger (or "boarder") usually pays a monthly sum of from $3.50 to $4. In practically all of the Polish boarding or lodging houses this monthly payment covers not only lodging, buying, and cooking food, and laundry, but also a daily breakfast of soup, bread, and coffee, furnished by the house. In many of the boarding houses of the Lithuanians, Ruthenians, Slovaks, and Russians the same manner of living prevails. To the man thus living, the total cost of lodging, food, cooking, and laundry is from $10 to $12 per month.

In the German and Swedish boarding houses the cost of living is somewhat greater, averaging from $3.50 to $5 per week, but the standard of living is likewise higher. Among the Germans and Swedes the American boarding-house system prevails, and the individual buying of provisions is unknown. In native boarding houses the cost of board and lodging ranges from $16 to $25 or more per month, the average being about $20. But to compare the American boarding houses with the majority of the immigrant houses is hardly significant, because the boarders in the American houses are for the most part higher-paid workmen than most of those who live in immigrant houses.

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