Intoning.

expensive harbor improvements would be required. The Chiriqui route has steeper grades, but superior natural harbors. The Panama route would probably exclude the transportation of vessels without steam power. See INTEROCEANIC SHIP CANAL. Mr. Eads believes that upon any route where it is possible to build a canal, it is equally possible to build and equip a substantial and durable ship railway;" that a railway is practicable where a canal is not; that the elements of cost, time of construction, speed in transit, capacity, and cost of maintenance and operating, are all heavily in favor of the railway; that the capacity of the railway could be increased at any time to transport more or larger ships with no interruption of traffic; that more accurate estimates can be made of the cost of a railway and the time of completion than of a canal, as the latter requires sub-aqueous work, where the conditions are more variable, and that, therefore, capitalists will have more confidence in the railway. It is estimated that the railway could be duplicated once in ten years for the interest on the difference between the cost of a canal and a railway of equal capacity. A traffic of 5,000,000 tons yearly, at $2 per ton, would give an income of $10,000,000, which, deducting 50 per cent for expenses, would leave a dividend of 10 per cent upon the capital.

INTERPLEAD ER SUIT was till recently brought only in the court of chancery to determine which of several parties claiming the same thing is entitled. Formerly, there was no analogous process in courts of common law whereby several parties claiming one thing could be brought into the field, but in 1831 a statute gave power to do this to a limited extent. By the judicature act of 1875, the interpleader acts are applicable to all actions in the high court. See MULTIPLEPOINDING.

INTERPOLATION, the insertion of a word, line, verse, sentence, part of a sentence, or whole passage, generally with a view to secure respect for some opinion by the apparent support of antiquity, or of those whose authority is greatest. Many instances of interpolation are well known, and others are with great probability suspected, in which the works of early Christian writers have been tampered with, to make them yield support to novel doctrines and practices.—In mathematics, interpolation is the insertion between two members of a series increasing according to a certain law, of other members such as, if not absolutely, yet very nearly, may accord with the same law.

INTERPRETATION, in law, is the judicial exposition of the meaning of constitutions, treaties, statutes, contracts, wills, and other papers, or parts of the same, that affect the rights of parties to any action in a court of justice. It often happens that a suit is determined by the interpretation of written words or phrases of doubtful meaning, so that courts in exercising their powers in this respect incur a very high responsibility, which is all the greater from the impossibility of reducing interpretation to an exact science under rigid rules. It is necessary that courts should not only have a clear understanding of the general meaning of words and of their application to the matters in hand, but also that they should be able impartially to weigh the whole environment of the cases upon which they are to pass an authoritative judgment, and at the same time cherish an earnest purpose to do exact justice to the parties. Their duty sometimes involves the necessity for very nice, not to say ingenious, discriminations, which tax alike their judgment and conscience. In regard to many things their task has been made easy by well settled rules and a long line of precedents; but new questions often arise, upon which precedents are to be made rather than followed. It sometimes happens, from a lack of skill in composition, that a single passage, taken by itself, is partially or wholly incompatible with the manifest spirit and intent of a legal docu ment. In such cases courts will exercise a large discretion, in order, if reasonably possible, to make the instrument consistent in itself. Every written paper necessarily assumes the existence of facts or incidents that are either not expressed at all, or expressed only by implication, and that must be considered before the exact meaning can be determined. An incompetent or unscrupulous judge might do a great wrong by a too close adherence to a particular part of an instrument while failing to give due weight to its spirit and purpose as a whole. Particular words and phrases must be considered in their relations to the context and to the subject matter, not torn from their connection and interpreted by themselves in such a way as to defeat the manifest intent of the instrument. Oral evidence cannot vary the terms of a written document, which must be considered as a whole. Courts are not at liberty to supply by interpretation the unexpressed intent of a legislature, testator, or contractor. The interpretation must be made in good faith and be in accord with good sense and the common understanding of language, not forced or strained to support a theory fatal to the document itself. Inadvertent errors or omissions will be overlooked, and mistakes in orthography and grammar will be lightly regarded where the meaning is clear. It is a general rule that the words of a statute are to be taken in their ordinary sense; but if the statute relates to a particular subject or class of persons, and requires the use of terms not generally familiar, their meaning will be determined by the prevailing usage in regard to the subject. The will of a legislature cannot be judicially conjectured. Penal statutes, in deference to the recognized rights of accused persons, are construed with great strictness; courts will not enlarge their scope by strained interpretations even to punish persons of whose guilt they have no moral doubt.

Intoning.

INTERVAL, in music, is the difference of pitch between sounds in respect to height or depth, or the distance on the stave from one note to another, in opposition to the unison, which is two sounds exactly of the same pitch. From the nature of our system of musical notation, which is on five lines and the four intervening spaces, and from the notes of the scale being named by the first seven letters of the alphabet, with repetitions in every octave, it follows that there can only be six different intervals in the natural diatonic scale until the octave of the unison be attained. To reckon from C upwards, we find the following intervals; thus C to D is a second; C to E is a third; C to F is a fourth; C to G, a fifth; C to A, a sixth; C to B, a seventh; and from C to C is the octave, or the beginning of a similar series. Intervals above the octave are therefore merely a repetition of those an octave lower; thus from C to D above the octave, although sometimes necessarily call a ninth, is neither more nor less than the same interval which, at an octave lower, is termed the second. A flat or a sharp placed before either of the notes of an interval does not alter the name of the interval, although it affects its quality; for example, from C to G is still a fifth, notwithstanding that the G is raised a semitone by the sharp. Intervals are classified as perfect, major, and minor. Perfect intervals are those which admit of no change whatever without destroying their consonance; these are the fourth, fifth, and the octave. Intervals which admit of being raised or lowered a semitone, and are still consonant, are distinguished by the term major or minor, according as the distance between the notes of the interval is large or small. Such intervals are the third and sixth; for example, from C to E is a major third, the consonance being in the proportion of 5 to 4; when the E is lowered a semitone by a flat, the interval is still consonant, but in the proportion of 6 to 5. and is called a minor third. The same description applies to the interval of the sixth from C to A, and from C to Ap. The second and seventh, though reckoned as dissonances, are also distinguished as major and minor. The terms "extreme sharp" and "diminished" are applied to intervals when they are still further elevated or depressed by a sharp or a flat. For the mathematical proportions of intervals, see HARMONICS.

INTES TACY, the state of a person who has died without leaving a will. Every person in the United Kingdom has the right, as one of the incidents of ownership, of regulating the succession of his property after his death; that is, of executing a will which must comply with certain requisites, so as to show that it was solemnly and deliberately made, by which will the owner can give his property to whomsoever he pleases. The forms in Scotland differ from those in England and Ireland, and there is some restriction on the right of testing or bequeathing property, but in all places the principle is, that if no will, or deed equivalent to a will, is executed, or, if a will executed is invalid from defect of form, then an intestacy occurs, and the law provides an heir or next of kin, in lieu of the owner himself doing so. See HEIR; SUCCESSION; WILL. A person may die partially intestate, for his will may have included only some of his property, in which case the property not so included goes to the heir-at-law, or next of kin, according as it is real or personal estate, as if no will had been made. But it is often a difficult question in construing the will, whether the property not specially mentioned was not conveyed by general words to the residuary legatee or devisee-a question which turns entirely on the language used in each case.

INTESTINES. See DIGESTION, ORGANS AND PROCESS OF.

INTON ING, according to the general use of the word, is the recitative form of offering prayer. Intoning differs from ordinary reading in having fewer inflections of the voice, and these only at stated parts of the prayers, and according to certain rules. The greater part of the prayer is recited on one note, the last two or three words being sung to the proximate notes of the scale. In the longer prayers, the terminal inflection is generally omitted. The words intoning and chanting are sometimes used interchangeably, but, though there is ground common to both, each has a domain peculiar to itself. Intoning may be defined as ecclesiastical recitative, and when several voices are employed in its performance, they sing, for the most part, in unison, breaking into harmony at the termination of the clause or sentence. Chanting embraces recitative and rhythm, both divisions being in continuous harmony. In the Anglican service, as performed in cathedral churches, ail those parts of the ritual, speaking generally, which are not set to rhythmical music, are intoned; these embrace that part of the morning and evening service which precedes the daily psalms, the litany, and the prayers in general.

John Marbeck (1550) was the first in England to adapt the offices of the reformed church to music; his work contained melody only. He was followed by Thomas Tallis, who flourished during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. The grave melody (founded on the ancient usage) and sublime harmonies of Tallis have never been equaled, and have continued in use till the present day with but slight modification. Tallis seems to have invented the form of the Anglican chant now used for the psalms. In the Roman Catholic church these are sung to the Gregorian tones. See GREGORIAN CHANT. The canticles are sung to rhythmical music of a more elaborated character, in which form they are technically named "services." The lessons, previous to the last review (1661) of the Book of Common Prayer, were intoned; since then, the invariable practice has been to read them.

Introduction.

The practice of inoning existed among the Jews at a very early period, and there is great probability that the ecclesiastical chant in present use throughout Christendom is but a modification of that which formed part of the ancient Jewish ritual. The castern and western churches, at variance on most points, are at one on this. Mohammedans also make use of this mode of prayer; and barbarous tribes (American Indians and South Sea islanders) are wont to propitiate their false gods in a species of rude chant; all which seems to point to some deeply-seated instinct of human nature, and to indicate an intuitive perception of the truth, that a solemn and reverential manner, distinct from his manner of ordinary intercourse with his fellows, best befits the creature in his approaches to the Creator. The Lutheran church and the church of England have continued the practice, though only to a permissory and non-essential extent. The latter uses it in her cathedral and collegiate churches, and in these vast edifices its advantages over reading are strikingly manifest.

INTOXICATION. Whether induced by fermented liquors or by distilled spirits, it is through the alcohol contained in either that the effects of intoxication ensue. These may be considered under two heads: 1. As they immediately manifest themselves during a single act of intoxication; and, 2. As they gradually arise through the frequent repetition of the act. The one refers to the state of drunkenness simply, the other to the habit (intemperance).

The effects of alcohol, in a single act of intoxication, vary according to the way in which the spirit has been taken. If swallowed rapidly, in large quantities or in a concentrated form, the agency is that of a powerful narcotic poison. The mode of action here is partly through a direct impression by the alcohol on the nerves of the stomach, and partly by its absorption into the blood, and its transmission thus to the brain, which is proved to take place with great rapidity. The individual falls into a deep stupor, from which it is impossible to rouse him. The face is ordinarily livid, with a swollen aspect, but sometimes it is ghastly pale. The skin is covered with chilly damps; the pulse is feeble, or perhaps wholly imperceptible; the breathing is slow and weak, though sometimes laborious and snorting; the eyes are rolled upwards, with contracted, or occasionally, dilated pupils; the jaws are clenched, and there are frequently convulsions. Where death follows, it may ensue in a few minutes, or after a period varying from a single hour to a day. Where the quantity taken is swallowed more slowly, as in ordinary drinking, the conseqences are those which are too familiarly known as characterizing a fit of drunkenness, and are the product of the more gradual and less excessive absorption. The first effect is that of a feeling of wellbeing, diffused over the body, and imparted to the mind. This gradually leads to a state of exhilaration, and thence to boisterous mirth and loquacity, attended at first by a swift transition and vivacity of the ideas, but speedily lapsing into indistinctness and confusion. In the increasing whirl of excitement, the individual loses all sense of prudence and self-government, betrays himself by his indiscretions, provokes pity and ridicule by his follies, or incurs danger by his recklessness. Along with this mental condition, the flushed face, flashing eye, and throbbing brain show, at first, the corresponding state of excitement of the bodily functions; while, along with the subsequent confusion of thought, the reeling gait and the look of stolid incomprehension denote the inthrallment that has followed. In a further stage, the memory fails, the individual maunders and mumbles in his speech, and the surrounding objects, recently seen imperfectly and misapprehended, wholly cease to impress him. At length, amid other loathsome concomitants, he sinks powerless, and stupor intervenes, from which he again awakens to consciousness after an indefinite number of hours; but then usually to suffer from qualms of sickness and other feelings of pain and depression, entailed upon him by a natural law as the reaction from his excess, and only dispelled after a still longer interval. The outline of the effects may vary. With some, the progress of a fit of drunkenness is never attended by hilarity or other conspicuous excitement, and a dreamy and subdued forgetfulness seems all that is produced or that is sought for. With some, even, it leads to a state of querulousness or of unreasoning melancholy. With others, the condition is one of furious madness, hesitating before no extreme of violence and outrage.

It is chiefly to the after-effects of the paroxysm that we are to trace the original growth and ultimate inveteracy of the drunken habit. The uneasy sensations of depres sion, following upon the excitement of the previous debauch, are sought to be relieved by a fresh recurrence to the stimulant; and a morbid appetite is thus created which craves its relief, and finds it, in the renewed administration of spirituous drinks, just as the natural appetite of hunger develops those sharp disquietudes that are allayed by food. This morbid appetite, in so far as it is morbid, may in itself be regarded and treated as a disease. But the universal health shows ultimately signs of a more deep injury. The cheeks begin to have a bloated and flabby look, with a complexion that either wears a . peculiar pallor, or verges into shades of purple, while the nose not rarely presents a sus picious tinge of crimson. The appetite for ordinary food fails, the digestion is impaired, the sleep is disturbed, and the vigor of frame and capacity for exertion sink accordingly. the limbs often aching and trembling, and the heart drooping with a miserable feeling of nervous exhaustion. Even prior to this, the drunkard is often liable to those minor illusions which end in the full development of what is known as the drunkard's delirium,

or delirium tremens, a form of temporary insanity characterized by a state of abject terror, with shaking of the limbs, the sufferer fancying that he is surrounded with monstrous phantasms, or that he is devoted otherwise to horrors, disasters, or crimes. One effect, and a leading one, of the customary presence of alcohol in the blood of the drinker, is to reduce the vitality of that fluid, so that it tends to sustain only the lowest forms of nutrition and auimalization, and deposits, in great part, merely an inert fat within those organs where it should minister to the growth and maintenance of a delicate construction, destined for uses essential to life. Thus we have fatty deposits, or changes of higher structures into fat, in the heart, the liver, and in the blood-vessels, the coats of the last becoming easily ruptured. Hence, liability to diseases of the heart and of the liver often followed by dropsies, or to affections of the other intestines, or to attacks of apoplexy and palsy. If not cut off abruptly in his career, the life of the drunkard becomes one long malady towards its close, the final condition being usually one of imbecility of mind and body, yet with throes of suffering to the last. It has been authoritatively shown that, while the average expectation of future life to the temperate man at 50 may be reckoned at 20 years, that of the drunkard at the same age is only four years. Again, between the ages of 21 and 30, the deaths among drunkards have been found to be more that five times, and between 31 and 50, more than four times what occur among the general community at the like ages. See DIPSOMANIA and DELIRIUM TREMENS.

INTOXICATION, or DRUNKENNESS, is, in point of law, no excuse for any wrong done by the drunken party. Crimes which are committed in a state of drunkenness are punishable in the same way as if the actor were sober, though it is discretionary in the court to mitigate the sentence. As regards contracts entered into by a drunken party, there is no peculiarity, unless the fact of drunkenness was taken advantage of by the sober party, in which case it lies on the drunken party to prove this. Cases may no doubt arise where the drunkenness may be an element of fraud, and so the contract or deed may be rescinded or set aside. The mere act or state of drunkenness, when privately indulged in, is not an offense against the law; but if it be shown in public, it may become so. If, for example, a person be drunk in the streets or a public place, he was made, by a statute of James I., liable to be fined 5s., or, if unable to pay, to be committed to the stocks for six hours. By a more modern enactment of 1872, called the intoxicating liquors licensing act, which repealed the older statute, every person found drunk in a highway or public place, or in a licensed house, is liable to a penalty of 10s. and on a second offense within 12 months, to 20s., and on a third offense within 12 months, to 40s. To be drunk and riotous, or be druuk while in charge of a horse or carriage, or of a gun, is punishable with a fine of 20s., or imprisonment for one month. Local acts also often impose other penalties. In Scotland several ancient statutes were passed against drunkenness, which, however, are in desuetude. In several local police acts a penalty is imposed on drunkenness in the streets, and the police and improvement act of Scotland, 25 and 26 Vict. c. 101, s. 254, subjects drunken persons in the streets to a penalty of 40s., or 14 days' imprisonment, in all places where that act is adopted.

INTRA DOS, the under or inner side or soffit of an arch (q. v.), the upper or outer curve being called the extrados.

INTRANSIGENTES, the name of a political party in Spain, comprising the extreme radical republicans. The federal republic having been declared June 8, 1873. they combined with the internationals in a communistic movement, which broke out in insurrection in several cities at once. Cartagena was held by them from July, 1873; until Jan., 1874, when it was surrendered. These troubles brought about the restoration of Serrano to the executive government, and led up to the proclamation of Alfonso XII. as king of Spain.

INTRENCHMENT, in a general sense, is any work, consisting of not less than a parapet and a ditch, which fortifies a post against the attack of an enemy. As a means of prolonging the defense in a regular work of permanent fortification, intrenchments are made in various parts, to which the defenders successively retire when driven in from forward works. Bastions are ordinarily intrenched at the gorge by a breastwork and ditch, forming either a re-entering angle or a small front of fortification. Such a work Across the gorge of the Redan at Sebastopol caused the repulse of the British attack in Sept., 1855. A cavalier, with a ditch, is also an intrenchment. An army in the field often strengthens its position by intrenchments, as by a continued line of parapet and ditch, broken into redans and curtains, or by a line with intervals, consisting of detached works of more or less pretension flanking each other.

INTRENCHMENT (ante). See FORTIFICATION, ante.

INTRODUCTION (Ital. introduzione), in music, is a kind of preface or prelude to a following movement. Formerly, the introduction was only to be found in large musical works, such as symphonies, overtures, oratorias, etc.; but now it is found in every rondo, fantasia, polonaise, waltz, etc., on the principle that it is considered abrupt to begin all at once, without preparing the audience for what is to come. In a stricter sense, introduction is applied to the piece of music with which an opera begins, and which immeU. K. VIII.-7

Invecta.

diately follows the overture. In some cases, the overture and introduction are united, the composition going on without any formal pause, as in Gluck's Iphigénie en Tauride, Mozart's Idomeneo and Don Giovanni. As the overture, which contains a harmonical sketch of the opera, should make a permanent impression on the audience, the custom of uniting it with the introduction has very properly been discontinued, and the introduction treated as an independent movement.

INTROMISSION, in Scotch law, is the assumption of legal authority to deal with another's property. It is divided into legal and vicious. Legal intromission is where the party is expressly or impliedly authorized, either by adjudgment or deed, to interfere, as by drawing the rents or getting in debts. Vicious intromission is where an heir or next of kin, without any authority, interferes with a deceased person's estate; as, for example, where a person not named by a will, or without the authority of any will, collects the property of the deceased person, as if he were regularly appointed. By so doing, the vicious intromitter incurs the responsibility of paying all the debts of the deceased. The vitiosity, however, may be taken off by the intromitter being regularly confirmed executor. The corresponding phrase in England to a vicious intromitter is an executor de

son tort.

INTRUSION, the Scotch law-term for a trespass on lands.
INTUITION. See INSTINCT, and COMMON SENSE.

IN'TUS-SUSCEPTION, or INVAGINATION, is the term applied to that partial displacement of the bowel in which one portion of it passes into the portion immediately adjacent to it, just as one part of the finger of a glove is sometimes pulled into an adjacent part in the act of withdrawing the hand. In this case, the contained portion of intestine is liable to be nipped and strangulated by the portion which contains it, and all the danger of hernia (q.v.) results, with far less chance of successful interference on the part of the surgeon or physician. It is one of the most frequent and fatal causes of obstruction of the bowels. The extent of the intus-susception may vary from a few lines to a foot or more. Even when inflammation is set up, the affection, although in the highest degree perilous, is not of necessity fatal. The invaginated portion mortifies and sloughs, while adhesion is established between the peritoneal surfaces of the upper and lower portions at their place of junction, so that the continuity of the tube is preserved, although a large portion may be destroyed. If the patient is strong enough to bear the shock of the inflammation, gangrene, sloughing, etc., a complete recovery ensues.

INULIN. See ELECAMPANE.

INUNDATIONS AND FLOODS are produced by the overflow of the ocean or of rivers. To these the low countries adjacent to the sea or rivers are liable. Holland, many of whose cities and fields are upon ground snatched from the occan, presents the most frequent scene of these calamities. In the year 860 A.D., the sea rose and swept over a portion of the Netherlands, carrying with it vast tracts of land, and changing the very shape of the coast. In 1014 a large part of the Netherlands and England, and in 1134 a part of Flanders, were submerged. In 1164 a part of Friesland and the lowlands of the Elbe and Weser were inundated. On All Saints' day in 1170 the northern part of Holland was visited with a flood so terrific that miles of country were swallowed up by the encroaching sea, and exactly to a day 400 years later the south of Holland was ravaged by the waves, so that Antwerp, Bruges, Hamburg, Rotterdam, and Amsterdam were submerged, and 30,000 people perished. In 1277 an inundation from the sea destroyed 44 villages; in 1287 by another 80,000 persons were drowned, and the Zuyder Zee received its present form and extent. In the 15th c. it is said that 100,000 were destroyed through the imperfection of dikes. In 1362 a flood destroyed 30 villages on the coast of Nordstrand. The St. Elizabeth flood of 1377 swept away 72 villages, laid desolate 50 m. of territory, and altered the course of both the Maas and Rhine. By the formation of dunes and an elaborate system of dikes the Dutch have succeeded of late years in keeping the restless invader at bay. and thus avoiding a national calamity. But while the dunes have done much to save the Netherlands from great loss, yet these would have afforded but a partial barrier without dikes. When dikes were first used is not known. In the 7th c. Friesland was diked by king Adgillus, and in the 8th c. Zealand by the Danes and Goths. When Spain ruled Holland, the dikes, not being kept in good condition, the engineer Caspar de Robles, governor of Friesland, compelled the people to repair them, and set his own soldiers to work.

Other countries besides Holland have suffered from the encroachments of the ocean. England, notwithstanding her barrier of high cliffs, has been the victim of several inundations. In 1607 the greater part of south Devonshire and the neighboring countries of Dorset and Cornwall were deluged by a sea flood that caused a fearful loss of life and property. Denmark too, in 1634, was visited with an inundation, when the sea with a mighty sweep which reached even Bremen, Hamburg, and Oldenburg, poured over the villages of the Nordland, destroying more than 20,000 human beings and 150.000 cattle. In 1717 the waters overflowed the northern coast, and ruined an immense number of buildings. In 1825 the waters rose to a great height, the flood being ascribed to an earthquake.

The floods from rivers are sometimes beneficial, as, for instance, those of the Nile,