Leyden.

terminus at North Lexington, across the river. It is the seat of justice of Lafayette co. on the southern bank of the Missouri river, near one of its most abrupt bends. The river being very tortuous it is 84 m. by water to Kansas City, lying directly w. of it, and but 42 m. by rail. It is 55 m. n. of Sedalia, and 40 m. e. of the Kansas line. It is built on a bluff 300 ft. high, and has a court-house and 2 seminaries for girls. Its leading industries are the manufacture of furniture and woolen goods. Hemp is extensively raised in its vicinity, coal is mined, and the trade on the river is brisk. There is a hill at the n.e. of the town where, in Sept., 1861, 2,800 union soldiers, under col. James Mulligan, sustained a prolonged siege against 25,000 soldiers of the confederate army, under gen. Sterling Price, at last surrendering the town and garrison, but on Oct. 16 the union forces, in command of maj. Frank J. White, gained possession of the town. In 1864 it was the scene of a skirmish between the forces of gen. Blunt and gen. Price.

LEXINGTON, a t. in central Virginia, in Rockbridge co., 110 m. w. of Richmond, 32 m. n.w. of Lynchburg; in the fertile valley of the Blue Ridge; pop. 70, 2,873-891 colored. It is situated on the North river, a tributary of the James, having a salubrious climate and delightfully picturesque surroundings. The foot hills in its vicinity contain deposits of sulphur ore, its meadows afford an abundance of nutritious grass, and the soil yields a liberal crop of cereals. Within a convenient distance are a number of sulphur springs, and groves of useful timber and ornamental trees add to the beauty and advantage of the town. It is the terminus of a branch of the James River and Kanawha canal. 20 m. in length. It is the seat of the Washington and Lee university, established by Robert Alexander in Augusta co.; removed in 1785 to this vicinity; named in honor of George Washington in 1796. Having been reorganized in 1865, in 1870 it added the name of Lee, in honor of gen. Robert E. Lee, its president in the years immediately following the close of the rebellion. It includes the Virginia military institute, founded in 1839 as a military and scientific school, having a state annual appropriation of $15,000: the state appointing 50 cadets annually; its cemetery is the burial place of gen. Stonewall Jackson and gen. Robert E. Lee. It has 7 churches, 3 hotels, 1 bank, 2 newspapers, 1 weekly and 1 semi-mouthly, a public library, flour and saw mills, and an iron foundry. LEX LOCI, a legal expression to denote the law of the country where a particular act was done, or where land is situated. See INTERNATIONAL LAW.

LEX LOCI (ante). See CONFLICT OF LAWS; FOREIGN Courts.

LEX NON SCRIPTA, the unwritten law, an expression often applied to the common law, or immemorial custom.

LEX REI SITÆ. See CONFLICT OF LAWS; FOREIGN COURTS; INTERNATIONAL LAW.

LEX TALIO NIS, the law of retaliation, common among all barbarous nations, by which an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth was considered the appropriate punishment. The doctrine is repudiated by all civilized countries.

LEYDEN (Fr. Leyde, the Lugdunum Batavorum of the Romans, originally Luijkduin, from luijk, an end, and dun, a hill; during the middle ages, Lugduin or Leydis), a celebrated seat of learning in Holland, situated on the Old Rhine, 22 m. s. w. of Amsterdam, and 17 n. of Rotterdam. Pop. Jan. 1, '75, 40,249. It is the oldest town in Holland, and has space for three times its present population. In 1640 Leyden contained 100.000 souls; in 1750 the numbers had fallen to 70,000; and at the beginning of the present century to 30,000. Since 1830 trade has again begun to flourish, and the population to increase. The streets are wide, the public buildings beautiful, and the canals broad and numerous. Within the city are the ruins of an old castle, called the “burg," supposed to have been built by the Romans before the birth of Christ. The principal manufactures are linen cloths, calicoes, woolens, but on a very small scale, as compared with former times. There is a considerable weekly market, for the whole of that part of Holland called Rhineland, held at Leyden, at which much butter and cheese change hands. But the chief ornament and glory of the city is its university-once unsurpassed by any in Europe. The origin of the university is well known. În 1574. when Holland was struggling to throw off the yoke of Spain, Leyden was besieged by the Spaniards, and had to endure all the horrors of famine. For 7 weeks the citizens had no bread to eat, and multitudes perished of hunger. The heroic burgomaster, Pieter Adriaanszoon Van der Werff, even offered his body as food to some who were imploring him to capit ulate. At last the prince of Orange broke down the dikes, flooded the country, drowned a great number of the Spaniards, and relieved the inhabitants. The prince of Orange now offered, as some compensation for their unparalleled sufferings, either to remit certain taxes or to establish a university in the city. The Leydeners nobly chose the latter, which was inaugurated by prince William in 1575. Many eminent men from all countries of Europe have been connected with it, both as professors and students. We may mention Scaliger, Gomarus. Arminius, Grotius, Descartes, Boerhaave, Camper, Spanheim, Ruhnken. When it recently celebrated, with befitting solemnities, its three hundredth anniversary, the university had between 20 and 30 professors and upwards of 800 students, of whom about half are law students. It possesses a valuable library, with many rare MSS.; a magnificent collection in medicine; a botanical garden, valuable for its tropical plants; a museum of natural history, one of the richest in Europe; and

Leyden.

another equally fine of comparative anatomy. The museum of antiquities is also excel· lent. On Jan. 12, 1807, the most beautiful quarter of the city was destroyed, and many lives lost, by the explosion of a ship's cargo of gunpowder, and the site of the ruined streets is now a plain on which the troops are exercised.

LEYDEN, JOHN, a poet and orientalist of some celebrity, was b. at Denholm, a village of Roxburghshire, Scotland, Sept. 8, 1775. His parents were in humble circumstances; but seeing his desire for learning, they made an effort for his education; and after passing through the ordinary course of study in the university of Edinburgh, he was licensed as a preacher or probationer" of the church of Scotland. During the years of his university course, he had, however, learned much that formed no necessary part of it, and in particular, several of the languages of modern Europe, and some of the oriental languages. He was a most ardent and enthusiastic student. His varied gifts and attainments soon recommended him to the attention of some of the most eminent men of the time in Edinburgh. In 1799 his first work issued from the press, A Historical Account of the Discoveries and Settlements of Europeans in Northern and Western Africa. About this time, also, he contributed many translations from the northern and oriental languages, and original poems to the Edinburgh Magazine. He contributed to Lewis's Tales of Wonder, and aided Scott in amassing materials for his Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. He was editor for one year of the Scots Magazine. In order to obtain opportunity of gratifying the strong desire which he felt to visit oriental countries, he studied medicine, and in 1802 sailed for India, having received the appointment of assistant-surgeon on the Madras establishment. Before leaving his native country he completed his Scenes of Infancy, a poem containing much that is beautiful; but on which, however, his reputation does not rest so much as on his minor pieces, and particularly his ballads. After his arrival at Madras, his health soon gave way, and he was compelled to remove to Penang, where he ardently prosecuted the study of the language, literature, history, etc., of the Indo-Chinese tribes. Having resided for a time in Penang, he left it for Calcutta, on being appointed a professor in the Bengal college; and he soon afterwards exchanged this office for that of a judge at Calcutta. When the expedition against Java was undertaken, Leyden obtained leave to accompany the governor-general thither; and at Batavia, in the exploration of a library which contained many Indian manuscripts in its musty recesses, he contracted a fever, of which he died after a few days' illness, Aug. 28, 1811 Leyden's versification is soft and musical; but "he is an elegant rather than a forcible poet." His attainments as an orientalist were extraordinary. The chief evidence extant of them, however, is an Essay on the Languages and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations, published in the Asiatic Researches. His Poetical Remains were published in 1819; and a new edition of his Poems and Ballads, with memoir by sir W. Scott, in 1858. A monument to Leyden was erected in Denholm. In 1875-his centenary-two new editions of his poems appeared.

LEYDEN, LUCAS VAN, one of the most celebrated painters of the early Dutch school, was born in Leyden in 1494. His talents, which were developed when he was very young, were first cultivated by his father, Hugo Jacobs, an obscure painter; but he was afterward placed in the school of Cornelius Engelbrechsten, an artist of repute in his day. He commenced engraving when scarcely nine years of age. His picture of St. Hubert, painted when he was only 12, brought him very high commendation; and the celebrated print, so well known to collectors by the name of Mahomet and the Monk Sergius,' was published in 1508, when he was only 14. He practiced successfully almost every branch of painting, was one of the ablest of those early painters who engraved their own works, and he succeeded, like Albert Dürer, in imparting certain qualities of delicacy and finish to his engravings that no mere engraver ever attained. The pictures of Lucas van Leyden are noted for clearness and delicacy in color, variety of character and expression; but his drawing is hard and gothic in form. Examples are to be seen in many of the galleries on the continent. His range of subjects was very wide, and embraced events in sacred history, incidents illustrative of the manners of his own period, and portraits. His engravings are very highly prized by collectors, and are ranked about as highly as those of Albert Dürer. He also executed some wood-cuts, which are very rare. Bartsch gives a list of 174 engravings by him. His habits were expensive. He seems to have occasionally entertained his brother-artists in a sumptuous manner; was on terms of intimacy with the celebrated painter, Jean de Mabuse, who is alleged to have been rather too fond of good living; and held friendly intercourse with Albert Dürer, whose talents he admired without professional jealousy. He married in early life a lady of the noble family of Boshagen, by whom he had one daughter. He died in 1533, aged 39. He had been confined to bed 6 years before his death, but contrived to paint and engrave till within a short period of his decease.

LEYDEN, SCHOOL OF, in theology, the name given to certain Dutch theologians who follow the rationalistic professors of the university of Leyden, founded in 1575. The principal advocates of this school are Abram Kuenen, Tiele, and J. H. Scholten, professors in Leyden, and their pupils. Their views are similar to those of the Dutch Tübingen school. Scholten in his younger days was orthodox, and strongly opposed the views of Baur and his associates, but in 1864 came out boldly in defense of them. Man," the Leyden school teaches, "arrives at a knowledge of the truth by the holy

Libanius.

Scriptures; but they must not be understood as containing the only revelation from God He also reveals himself to the world_through the hearts of all believers. The Bible is the source of the original religion. There is a difference between the Scriptures and the word of God. The latter is what God reveals in the human spirit concerning his will and himself. The writing down of the communication is purely human; therefore the Bible cannot be called a revelation. To prove the certainty of the facts of revelation, historical criticism must be called in." But they assert, in applying "historical criticism," that we cannot go further back than the middle of the 8th c before Christ, or the time of Hosea and Amos; that "all the preceding times are enveloped in hopeless myth. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, the founders of Israel, are not persons, but personifications They are purely ideal figures, for modern historical inquiry teaches us that races are not derived from one progenitor, but many. The development and preservation of Israel-its whole history-were the result of purely national causes." Christianity they regard as "neither superhuman nor supernatural. It is the highest point of the development of human nature itself, and in this sense it is natural and human in the highest acceptation of those terms. It is the mission of science to put man in a condition to comprehend the divine volume presented by Christianity." And what the relation of science to faith is may be learned from Opzoomer, of Utrecht university, who says. "Science is not to appear before the bar of faith, but faith before that of science; for it is not the credibility of knowledge, but of faith, that is to be proved. Science needs no justification. The believer, on the contrary, must justify his faith, and that before the bar of science. Thus, as a matter of course, the final decision and the supreme power rest with science." This writer's arguments against miracles are precisely those of Hume. He says. "We know nothing of the supernatural; to us there is not a single miracle."

LEYDEN JAR. See ELECTRICITY.

LEYS, JEAN Auguste Henri, 1815-69; b. Antwerp. His artistic studies were pursued at first under the direction of Brakaleer, his brother-in-law, and when he was but 18 years of age he exhibited a picture, "Combat of a Grenadier with a Cossack," which attracted much attention. After this he studied for a time in France and Holland, and then returned to Antwerp, where he won great distinction. His subjects were taken in part from the history of his own country, and in part from the life of the middle ages, and his work is the result of careful research and high artistic feeling and insight. A grand medal of honor was awarded him for three pictures in the Paris exhibition of 1855. He was similarly honored for work exhibited in the exposition of 1867. In 1846 he was decorated with the order of Leopold, in 1851 raised to the rank of officer, and in 1867 appointed commander of the order and raised to the dignity of officer in the legion of honor. He was also created a baron by Leopold, and chosen a member of the royal academy of Belgium. Died in Antwerp.

LE ZE MAJESTY, an offense against sovereign power-lasa majestas.
LHA-SSA, or H'LASSA. See LASSA.

L'HÔPITAL, or L'HOSPITAL, MICHEL DE, 1504-73; b. at Aigueperse, in the present department of Puy de Dôme; studied jurisprudence at Padua; in 1547 was sent by the French court to the council of Trent in Bologna; in 1554 was made president of the court of accounts, and in 1560 chancellor of France. His ability and integrity were ackowledged by all parties, but he made enemies among extreme Roman Catholics by his moderation, and especially by his successful efforts to secure the freedom of Protestant worship and prevent the establishment of the inquisition in France. In 1568 he resigned the office of chancellor and retired to his estate at Bellebat, in the present department of Seine-et-Oise, where he died. His memoirs, 4 vols., were published in Paris in 1824, and an edition of his poems appeared in 1827.

LI, the name of a Chinese measure of length. The li = .577 Fr. kilomètre = .358 (rather more than one-third) English mile.

LIABILITY (LIMITED) ACTS. See JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES.

LIABILITY, LIMITED (ante), a limited responsibility of parties to certain contracts. The limit of such responsibility is fixed by statutory provisions. The most common case of limited liability occurs in limited partnerships. Such a partnership is created by written contract; the parties to it are either general or special partners, and a public notice must be given of its creation, of the names of the partners, and of the amount of capital contributed by the special partner or partners; and this capital must be actually paid in. Any deviation from the statutory forms withdraws the partnership from the operation of the statute, and makes each partner liable for the partnership debts to the full amount of his property, as in the ordinary partnership at common law. A jointstock company "limited" is much the same thing as a limited partnership, and the operation of the statutes in their regard limits the liability of each member to the amount of his share in the company's stock. See JOINT-STOCK ČOMPANIES (ante).

LIA NAS, a term first used in the French colonies, but afterwards adopted by English, German, and other travelers, to designate the woody, climbing, and twining plants which abound in tropical forests, and constitute a remarkable and ever-varying feature of the

scene. Such plants are comparatively rare in colder climates, although the honeysuckles and some species of clematis afford familiar examples of them; but as these often overtop the hedges or bushes in which they grow, and fall down again by the weight of their leaves as their stems elongate, so the lianas of tropical countries overtop the tallest trees, descend again to the ground in vast festoons, pass from one tree to another, and bind the whole forest together in a maze of living network, and often by cables as thick as those of a man-of-war. Many parts of the forest-as in the alluvial regions of the Amazon and Orinoco-thus become impenetrable without the aid of the hatchet, and the beasts which inhabit them either pass through narrow covered paths, kept open by continual use, or from bough to bough far above the ground. Many lianas-as some of the species of Wrightia-become tree-like in the thickness of their stems, and often kill by constriction the trees which originally supported them; and when these have decayed, the convolutions of the lianas exhibit a wonderful mass of confusion magnificent in the luxuriance of foliage and flowers. No tropical flowers excel in splendor those of some lianas. Among them are found also some valuable medicinal plants, as sarsaparilla. The rattans and vanilla are lianas. Botanically considered, liauas belong to natural orders the most different. Tropical plants of this description are seldom to be seen in our hot-houses, owing to the difficulty of their cultivation.

LIAS. The lias is the lower division of the oolitic or jurassic period (q.v.). The beds composing it may be considered as the argillaceous basis of that series of rocks, consisting of more than a thousand feet of alternations of clay and limestone, with but a few unimportant deposits of sand. It consists of the following groups:

The upper lias consists of thin limestone beds scattered through a great thickness of blue clay, more or less indurated, and so aluminous that it has been wrought for alum at Whitby. A thick band of vegetable matter or impure lignite occurs in this division, in which are found nodules and lumps of jet, a peculiar mineral composed of carbon and hydrogen, and probably having a similar origin to the amber of the tertiary lignites. A series of brown and yellow sands, and a peculiar layer called the cephalopoda bed, from the abundance of these fossils contained in it, occur above these clays; recently, they have been separated from the inferior oolite, and joined to this division, on the evidence of the contained fossils.

The marlstone is an arenaceous deposit, bound together either by a calcareous or ferruginous cement, in the one case passing into a coarse shelly limestone, and in the other into an ironstone, which has been extensively wrought both in the north and south of England.

The lower lias beds consist of an extensive thickness of blue clays, intermingled with layers of argillaceous limestone. In weathering, the thin beds of blue or gray limestone become light brown; while the inter-stratified shales retain their dark color, giving the quarries of this rock, at a distance, a striped or ribbon-like appearance, whence, it is supposed, the miner's name lias or layers is derived. Generally the clays rest on triassic rocks, but occasionally there is interposed a thin bed of limestone, containing fragments of the bones and teeth of reptiles and fish, generally of undoubted liassic age; occasionally, the bones of keuper reptiles are met with in it, causing it to have been referred to the trias.

The lias is highly fossiliferous, the contained organisms being well preserved; the fishes are often so perfect as to exhibit the complete form of the animal, with the fins and scales in their natural position. Numerous remains of plants occur in the lignite and in the shales. The name gryphite limestone has been given to the lias, from the great quantities of gryphea incurrata, a kind of oyster, found in it. Some of the older genera of mollusca are still found in these beds, but the general character of these animals more nearly approaches the newer secondary forms. Fish remains are frequently met with; the reptiles, however, are the most striking features. They are remarkable for the great numbers in which they occur, for the size which many of the species attain, and for the adaptations in their structure which fitted them to live in water. The most noteworthy are species of ichthyosaurus (q.v.) and plesiosaurus (q.v.).

The liassic rocks extend in a belt of varying breadth across England, from Whitby, on the coast of Yorkshire, s. to Leicester, then s.e. by Gloucester, to Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire.

LIBA'NIUS, one of the latest and most eminent of the Greek sophists or rhetoricians, was b. at Antioch, in Syria, about 314 or 316 A.D. He studied at Athens under various teachers, and first set up a school in Constantinople, where his prelections were so attractive that he emptied the benches of the other teachers of rhetoric, who had him brought before the prefect of the city on a charge of "magic," and expelled. He then proceeded to Nicomedia; but after a residence of five years, was forced by intrigues to leave it, and

returned to Constantinople. Here, however, his adversaries were in the ascendent; and after several vicissitudes, the old sophist, broken in health and spirit, settled down in his native city of Antioch, where he died about 393 A.D. Libanius was the instructor of St. Chrysostom and St. Basil, who always remained his friends, though Libanius was himself a pagan. He was a great friend of the emperor Julian, who corresponded with him. His works are numerous, and mostly extant, and consist of orations, declamations, narratives, letters, etc. The most complete edition of the orations and declamations is that by Reiske (4 vols. Altenb. and Leip. 1791-97), and of the letters that by Wolf (Amst. 1738).

LIBANON. See LEBANON.

LIBANUS, MOUNT. See LEBANON.

LIBATION (Lat. libare, to pour out), literally anything poured out before the gods as an act of homage or worship; a drink-offering. The term was often extended in signifi cation, however, to the whole offering of which this formed a part, and in which not only a little wine was poured upon the altar, but a small cake was laid upon it. This custom prevailed even in the houses of the Romans, who at their meals made an offering to the Lares in the fire which burned upon the hearth. The libation was thus a sort of heathen "grace before meat."

LI'BAU, a seaport of Courland, Russia, on the Baltic, 526 m. s.w. of St. Petersburg. It existed previous to the settlement here of the Teutonic knights, who surrounded the town with walls, and erected in 1300 a cathedral and a castle. In 1795 it was annexed to Russia. The port is open almost the whole year, but has only a small depth of water. Its inhabitants, since the 17th c., have devoted themselves to ship-building, and now furnish merchant-vessels to St. Petersburg, Riga, and Revel. In 1873 over 200 ships entered and as many cleared the port. The imports, amounting in value to 1,500,000 rubles annually, consist of salt herrings, wines, fruit, and colonial produce: the exports (about 5,000,000 rubles in value) are chiefly cercals, leather, flax, seeds, and timber. Pop. '67, 9,090.

LIBEL, in Scotch law and in English ecclesiastical law, means the summons or similar writ commencing a suit, and containing the plaintiff's allegations.

LIBEL is a publication either in writing, print, or by way of a picture, or the like, the tendency of which is to degrade a man in the opinion of his neighbors, or to make him ridiculous. When similar results follow from words spoken, the act is called slander (q.v.), which, however, is less severely punished. It is extremely difficult to define what amounts to libelous matter, for the question whether a publication amounts to libel must always be left to the decision of a jury, and this decision is somewhat uncertain, and varies with the popular mood for the time. But the test is, in point of law, whether there results degradation of character. There are two remedies in England for the wrong caused by libel; one is by indictment, the other is by action. If the offense is of a public nature, an indictment is generally resorted to, for every libel tends to a breach of the peace; or the libeled party applies to the court of queen's bench for a criminal information, which is a variety of indictment. When an action is brought, its object is to recover damages for the private injury sustained. The rule formerly was, in indictments and criminal informations, that the defendant was not allowed to plead in defense that the libelous matter was true. But the law was in 1843 altered, and the defendant is now allowed, in criminal as well as civil proceedings, to prove the truth, and that it was for the public benefit that the matter should be published, stating how. If, however, the jury by their verdict find otherwise, this defense often aggravates the punishment. The statute 6 and 7 Vict. c. 96 also improved the law of libel as regards editors, and proprietors of newspapers and periodical publications, who were formerly held liable for libels inserted without their knowledge. By the present law, the defendant may plead in defense that the article in question was inserted without actual malice and without gross negligence, and that, before the commencement of the action or at the earliest opportunity afterwards, the defendant inserted an apology, or if the periodical did not appear within an interval of a week, that he offered to publish an apology in any newspaper or periodical to be selected by the plaintiff. But the defendant, when he pleads this defense, must also pay into court a sum of money, by way of amends for the injury done. In these cases, even where the proceeding is by indictment or criminal information, the defendant, if he obtains a verdict, will (contrary to the general rule) be entitled to have his costs paid by the prosecutor. There are certain libels which are called blasphemous on account of their denying the fundamental truths of Christianity, and these are punishable by fine and imprisonment. So there are seditious, treasonable, and immoral libels, according to the nature of the subject-matter. If any person threaten to publish a libel, or offer to prevent such publication, with intent to extort any money, security, or valuable thing, or with intent to induce any person to confer or procure any appointment or office of profit or trust, he is liable to imprisonment with or without hard labor for three years. If any person maliciously publish a defamatory libel, knowing the same to be false, he is liable to two years' imprisonment and a fine; and the malicious publication, even though not with knowledge that it is false, makes the author liable to one year's imprisonment and a fine.