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The style of landscape gardening in which regular forms prevail is called the geometric, and the opposite style, from having been first extensively practiced in England, in which country, indeed, it may be said to have originated, is known as the English. On the continent of Europe, a pleasure-ground laid out with winding and irregular walks, and scattered trees or groups of trees and shrubs, is called an English garden. But many of the continental English gardens are rather caricatures of the true English style than illustrations of it.

The taste of the present age rejects the grottoes, temples, statues, monuments, fountains, jets-d'eau, etc., with which it was once the fashion to fill pleasure-grounds, or admits only of their sparing introduction.

In the laying out of grounds, whether on a large or a small scale, it is of great importance that the trees and shrubs be well chosen, and the different kinds well grouped:

LANDSCAPE GARDENING (ante). The word landscape implies a considerable range of perspective over nature, embracing gradations from a foreground to a middle and a far distance. A piece of decorated ground, or park, which has not such a view cannot be considered a landscape garden. There is an obvious impropriety in the conjunction of the words landscape and garden, in their use when we mean simply the English or natural style in decorative gardening. The latter words cover the whole field, and should be substituted for landscape gardening. To garden, to lay out and plant, and make or mold such an extent of view as to create grand or extensive landscapes, is preposterous. As well seek to make artificial skies or oceans. Great and beautiful landscapes are without the pale of gardening arts; but decorative gardening may aid in producing charming bits of perspective in vegetation, made more pictorial by artful adaptations of the various elements of beauty which the garden artist may have means to employ, and thus make exquisite miniature or condensed landscapes. The term decorative gardening, however, even in that case, is by far the truer name to apply to the art. As used in England, the term landscape-gardening refers to the natural and graceful, in contradistinction to the formal and geometric, styles of gardening. The English, having originated and carried the former style to a perfection never before attained, the word landscape, which attached to that variety of decorated grounds, has served. to mislead people into the idea that a good imitation of a piece of primitive nature is a refined piece of landscape gardening." The charm of primitive nature is the absence of all evidence of art. The charm of decorative gardening is in the variety and perfection of the art employed in improving, arranging, and setting pliant vegetation: so that the beautiful foliage and bloom of its summer growth shall be exhibited to the greatest perfection from the walls or roads made to traverse the ground; so as to make the most charming setting for the architecture and sculpture that may be needed for the comfort or delight of those who are to use the place, or to make a lovely foreground for a distant view. All the hints which a living observer of natural scenery may receive from a close observation of the effects produced, the play of light and shade and color, by the varied juxtapositions of ground surfaces, trees, grass, roads, and water, to enable him to reproduce on a limited scale the most pleasing effects he may see, and to avoid those features in the primitive picture which do not contribute to its pleasing effect-all these hints from nature constitute the elements of landscape gardening. But in order to be an art it must be associated with the evidence of human effort. A lovely bit of wild landscape, if it have but a path to a summer-house, or any other evidence that its beauty is dedicated to use as beauty, becomes a bit of landscape art by such evidence of its appropriation. And the added features of art, as paths, walks, flowers, and lawn, that will heighten the beauty and the interest of that pretty scene, without marring its barmony, constitute the gardening art. As wealth and taste increase, the art naturally tends to great use of architectural accompaniments; as decorated steps, terraces, pavilions, garden-houses, vases, fountains, bridges, etc., until the constructive arts are the principal, and nature's growths only their decoration. Then, it is architectural gardening; none the less decorative, but certainly not landscape gardening. The formal park at Versailles, with its monotony of geometric angles, its breadth of barren gravel, its wealth of architectural and sculptural decorations, is a type of architectural and formal gardening on a great park scale. Roman and Italian villa gardens for 2,000 years have been examples of the more domestic forms of architectural gardening. Compared with the simple use of nature's materials in the English or "natural" style, the former are vastly more expensive. The latter is, therefore, to be recommended, for the reason that at limited cost very charming effects may be produced with grass, trees, and flowers alone; and it is far better to succeed perfectly with the use of these only, than to attempt a style beyond most men's reach. But when both taste and the means to gratify it are joined, much higher examples of decorative gardening may be produced by working after the Italian school.

The public parks of the United States (see Parks) now exhibit some of the best models of landscape gardening on a great scale. The cemeteries of nearly all American cities are also designed to produce pleasing effects in landscape gardening; and as far as such effects can be produced where numberless monumental tributes to the dead must necessarily be conspicuous features of the scene, they are the most beautiful art

works of their kind in the world. In private grounds the development of taste in the United States, in what is called landscape gardening, but should be called decorative gardening merely, has been rapid; and although architectural gardening has received little of the study which its capabilities invite, the lovely surroundings of grass, trees, and flowers of American homes marks an advanced taste in the arts of gardening. The principal American works on this subject are A. J. Downing's "Treatise on Landscape Gardening," published 30 years ago, and a work by Weidemeyer on decorative gardening on a scale adapted to suburban homes, F. J. Scott's treatise entitled "The Art of Beautifying Home Grounds." London's Encyclopedia of Gardening" (English) is by far the most complete work of the kind extant; of greatest value to those who may intend to practice landscape gardening as a profession, but more particularly adapted to England.

LANDS-CLAUSES ACT, a statute passed in 1845, containing a code of regulations generally inserted in all local acts where a power is given to take compulsorily a man's land for the purposes of public improvements. As no man can be compelled otherwise to sell his property, a statutory power to compel him is necessary in all cases where a public undertaking, such as a railway, harbor, etc., requires it. A statute, 8 Vict. c. 18, accordingly, with the above title, was passed for England, and 8 Vict. c. 13 for Scotland, each containing detailed provisions as to the mode of settling the price to he given in such cases, etc.

LANDSEER, CHARLES, 1799-1879; b. England; elder brother of sir Edwin. Received his first instructions in art from his father, and from the celebrated historical painter, B. R. Haydon, and entered the school of the royal academy in 1816. Four years later he accompanied lord Stuart de Rothsay on a mission to Brazil, where he made a large number of drawings and sketches for Don Pedro I. He made his first exhibition at the royal academy in 1828; in 1837 was elected an associate; and in 1845 an academician. In 1851 he became keeper of the academy, and held that office until 1873, when he retired with a pension of the amount of his salary. Among his paintings, the most important are “Pillaging of a Jew's House;" "The Temptation of Andrew Marvell;" "The Departure of Charles II. from Bentley;" and "The Eve of the Battle of Edgehill." One of his paintings found a place in the Vernon gallery, and others gained art union prizes.

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LANDSEER, Sir EDWIN, R.A., an English painter, son of John Landseer, an eminent engraver, was born in London in 1892, and was carefully trained by his father, who used to take him out, when only a child, to Hampstead Heath, and accustom him to sketch animals from life. The first work of Landseer's that brought him prominently before the public was Dogs Fighting," exhibited in 1819. It was succeeded by the "Dogs of St. Gothard" (1819), the popularity of which was very great. The scene of several of his finest pictures is laid in the Highlands of Scotland. For upwards of thirty years, every London exhibition has witnessed his success. In 1827 he was elected a R.A., and in 1850 he was knighted. Among his most celebrated achievements are: "The Return from Deer-stalking, "The Illicit Whisky-still."' "High Life," "Low Life,' Poachers Deer-stalking,' 'Bolton Abbey in the Ölden Time,' 33 66 The Drover's ""Return from Hawking. Departure, The Old Shepherd's Chief Mourner," "Dignity and Impudence,' Peace," "War," Stag at Bay. The Drive-Shooting Deer on the Pass," "The Random Shot,' Night, Morning," "The Children of the Mist," "Saved," "Highland Nurses," Deer-stalking," and Flood in the Highlands" (1861), and more recently, "Windsor Park," Squirrels Cracking Nuts," and "Man Proposes. but God Disposes." Landseer was elected president of the royal academy in 1866, but declined the honor. He died Oct. 1, 1873. Landseer is reckoned the most superb animal-painter of his time. Most of his pictures have been engraved.-Two brothers of Landseer, CHARLES and THOMAS, are also artists. Thomas is one of the best living engravers in England.

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LANDSEER, JOHN, 1789-1852, b. Lincoln, Eng.; now best known as the father of sir Edwin Landseer, whose paintings he was first to engrave and make widely known. At 24 he had executed some admirable plates. In 1806 he opened a school of engraving, became an associate of the royal academy the year after, and devoted much time to archæology. Among his engravings are the plates in Bower's History of England; in sir Thomas Moore's Views in Scotland; a portrait of Nelson; "Saint John" after Benj. West; "The Rat on Watch;""The Dogs of Mt. St. Bernard," after a painting by Edwin; and plates for the Stafford gallery, an elaborate quarto in 4 vols., 1818. He is author of a descriptive catalogue of the early pictures of the national academy in London. which abounds in lively narratives and humor; of a memoir on the sculptured stones from Babylon in vol. xviiith of the Archaologica; and of Sabian Researches.

LANDSEER, THOMAS, 1800-66, b. London; older brother of sir Edwin, and engaged most of his life engraving on steel from the latter's superb animal pictures. His engravings are remarkable reproductions, often full-sized copies, of the original paintings; and give the life, spirit, and atmosphere of the paintings of sir Edwin as really as the paintings themselves. Among his other works is the engraving of Rosa Bonheur's Marché aux Cheveaux." The French national library contains an album of his designs

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and sketches, which indicate high talent. He was author of the Life and Letters of William Bewick.

LAND'S END. See CORNWALL.

LANDSFELDT, COUNTESS OF. See LOLA MONTEZ.

LANDS'HUT, an ancient and picturesque German town, of Upper Bavaria, is situated in a pleasant and fertile district on the Isar, 39 m. n.e. of Munich. Its streets are rich in quaint old gables, and there are numerous towers; that of St. Martin's church (a Gothic building, dating from 1450) is 420 English ft. in height. Landshut contains 36 breweries, and has manufactures of woolen cloth, leather, hosiery, and tobacco. In 1826 the university, which was removed hither from Ingolstadt in 1800, was transferred to Munich. The castle of Trausnitz, long the residence of the dukes of Bavaria, is supposed to have been originally a Roman station. During the thirty years' war, and the war of the Austrian succession, Landshut was an important fortress, and the scene of many conflicts. Pop. '75, 14,784.

LANDS'HUT, or LANDESHUT, a t. about 50 m. from Breslau, in Silesia, Prussia; pop. '71, 5,673. An important linen trade is carried on by the inhabitants, but the ace is not otherwise remarkable in a co.nmercial sense. Here was fought in 1760 an Important battle between the Prussians, and the Austrians under gen. Laudon, in which the latter were successful.

LANDS KRONA, a fortified seaport t. of Sweden, on a tongue of land which projects into the sound, 18 m. n. n.e. from Copenhagen. The harbor is very good. Shipbuilding is carried on. Corn, fish, tar, pitch, timber, and alum are the principal exports. Pop. '78, 9,219.

LANDSLIPS, large portions of land which from some cause have become detached from their original position, and slid down to a lower level. They are especially common in volcanic districts, where the trembling of the earth that frequently accompanies the eruption of a volcano is sufficient to split off large portions of mountains, which slide down to the plains below. Water is another great agent in producing landslips. It operates in various ways. The most common method is when water insinuates itself into minute cracks, which are widened and deepened by its freezing in winter. When the fissure becomes sufficiently deep, on the melting of the ice, a landslip is produced. Sometimes, when the strata are very much inclined, and rest on a bed susceptible of absorbing water, and becoming slippery, the superincumbent mass slides over it to a lower level. This took place on a large scale in Dorsetshire between Lyme and Axminster, in 1839, an unusually wet season, in which the strata had become saturated with moisture. A mass of chalk and greensand here slid over the slippery surface of a bed of liassic clay down into the sea, leaving a rent three-quarters of a mile long, 240 ft. wide, and 150 ft. deep. Of the same kind was the slip of the Rossberg, in Switzerland (see GOLDAU). Landslips of a different kind have been produced in peat mosses, which becoming by heavy rains thoroughly saturated with water, have burst their natural boundaries, and discharged themselves on a lower level. The most remarkable case on record is that of the Solway Moss, which, in 1772, owing to greater rains than had fallen for nearly two centuries, spread itself in a slowly rolling, resistless deluge of black mud over 400 acres of cultivated fields, and to such a depth as almost to cover several houses, while it reached the roof of others.

LANDSMAN, a term applied on beard ship to a sailor who has never been at sea before. The word is gradually becoming obsolete, and is supplied in the royal navy by the expression "ordinary seamen of the 2d class."

LANDSTAD, MAGNUS BROSTRUP, 1802-80; a priest in the national church of Norway, and distinguished for his contributions to the literature of his country. He has been regarded as one of the twelve great Norwegian poets of this century. He published a hymn-book, which in 1869 was authorized to be used in the public religious services, and is now used in nearly every parish in Norway. In 1853 he published his Norwegian ballads, which, with notes, fill more than 900 octavo pages.

LANDSTURM. See LANDWEHR, ante.

LAND-SURVEYING, or the measurement of the area of a portion, whether small or large, of the earth's surface, is an important application of mathematics, and involves a thorough acquaintance with geometry, trigonometry, and the theory and use of the instruments employed for the determination of angles. Fields or portions of ground of small extent are measured easily and with sufficient accuracy by a chain (for distances), and a box-compass or cross-staff (for angles). For larger areas, the use of the surveyor's table is requisite; and for those of still greater extent, in which the greatest accuracy is requisite in the determination of the angles, the astrolabe, theodolite, sextant, circle, reflector, micrometer, etc., are used. The surface to be measured is divided into triangles, which are separately measured and calculated; but when a large extent is included in the measurement, it is not enough to proceed from one triangle to another, in which way an error at the outset may be propagated with continual increase; but a base line, as long as circumstances admit of, must, in the first instance, be accurately measured, upon which, by means of the measurement of angles, all the subsequent calculations are

made to depend, and lines subsequently measured are only intended to be corrective of the results obtained by calculation. When the extent of surface is still greater, as when a whole country is to be measured, points here and there are astronomically determined, their meridians are accurately laid down, and a complicated system of triangles is employed to insure accuracy. This is called triangulation.

LAND-TAX, a tax imposed upon land and houses for purposes of revenue, in lieu of the ancient subsidies, scutages, talliages, tenths, fifteenths, and such occasional taxes. From a very early period to the middle of the 17th c., parliament had provided for the extraordinary necessities of the government chiefly by granting subsidies, which were raised by an impost on the people in respect of their reputed estates. Landed property was the chief subject of taxation, and was assessed nominally at 4s. in the pound. But this assessment was made in such a way that it did not rise with the value of land, but dwindled away to about 2d. in the pound. The Long parliament devised a more efficient plan by fixing the sum to be raised, and then distributing it among counties according to their supposed wealth, leaving them to raise it by a rate. In 1692 a new valuation of lands was made, and it was found that a tax of 1s. per pound would yield half a million. In war this was raised to 4s. In 1798 the parliament relieved itself of the trouble of every year passing an act, and a general act was passed, permanently fixing the land-tax at 4s. in the pound. This act (38 Geo. III. c. 60) enabled the landlord to redeem the tax, and accordingly, since that time, a great part of it has been redeemed,' only about one million being unredeemed. Though the act of 1798 directed the tax to be assessed and collected with impartiality, this provision was not carried out, but the old valuation of 1698 was acted on, and in modern times the greatest possible inequality prevails. If the tax is in arrear, the tenant is liable to a distress; but the tenant may deduct it from the next rent he pays. The tax, though nominally chargeable on the landlord, falls neither on the landlord nor the tenant, but on the beneficial proprietor, as distinguished from the tenant at rack-rent; for if the tenant has sublet, and has a beneficial interest, he pays pro tanto the tax, charging the residue on the landlord. The proportion of land-tax fixed on Scotland was £47,954, and a proportion was fixed on each county, the commissioners having power to amend the valuation. The collection and management of the tax was given to the commissioners of taxes by the statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 13.

LAND-TRANSPORT CORPS. See MILITARY TRAIN.

LAND WEHR (land-defense), a military force in several of the German states, somewhat corresponding to the militia (q.v.) of Great Britain. It is not always retained under arms. During peace, its members spend most of their time in civil pursuits, and are called out for military service only in times of war or of commotion-care being taken, however, that they are sufficiently exercised to make them ready for such service when necessary. The name Landwehr was first applied to the Tyrolese, who rose against the French; and in 1805 a similar force was raised in the other German provinces of Austria, which, however, the emperor has recently abolished. By far the most elaborate and complete system of land-defense was the Prussian, which was called into existence in 1813, when all Germany rose against Napoleon. As early, indeed, as 1806, or earlier, marshal Knesebeck, then a major in the Prussian army, had proposed such a thing; but it was not till the opening of the campaign of 1813 that the Prussian Landwehr was organized according to Scharnhorst's plan by a royal edict, dated Mar. 17. At first, it was designed solely as a land-defense, properly so called, and not, what is now the case, as an integral part of the regular army. It was called out in two separate levies, the first comprising all men from 26 to 32, and the second those from 32 to 39. The old men up to 60 belonged to the landsturm, which was called out only for the defense of house and hearth.

After the second peace of Paris appeared the Landwehrordnung (Landwehr-regulation) of April 21, 1815, according to which the country was divided into 104 districts, each of which had to furnish a battalion of Landwehr. To every battalion of Land wehr was attached a squadron of uhlans; three battalions formed a regiment; two regiments, a Landwehr brigade, which, along with the brigades of cavalry and infantry, was placed under a general of division. By the constitution of April, 1871, the Prussian obligation to serve in the army was extended to the whole German empire. Every German capable of bearing arms, after serving in the standing army for seven years, has to enter the Landwehr, and remain in it for other five years.

LANE, a co. in w. Kansas, formed of extensive prairies and watered by Walnut creek, North Fork, and South Fork, affluents of the Arkansas river; 650 sq. miles. Pop. '80, 633. LANE, a co. in w. Oregon, having for its n. boundary a branch of the Willamette river, called McKenzie's Fork; the Cascade range of mountains for its e. border, and the Calapooya mountains extending along the s. boundary line to where the Sinslaw river rises and flows w. to the Pacific ocean, which forms its w. boundary; 3,550 s.qm.; pop. '80, 9,411. The Willamette valley formed by the river of that name lies along the e. section for 200 m., and is from 20 to 30 m. wide; for two-thirds of the year the river is navigable by steamboats as far as Eugene City, 200 m. from its mouth. The surface is uneven, varied by hills, valleys, and dense forests of fir and pine. The scenery is magU. K. VIII.-42

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nificent. It embraces three peaks of the Cascade range, Mt. Hood, 11,934 ft. above the level of the sea, Mt. Jefferson, and Mt. Pitt. Igneous rocks are found in the mountainous district; but in the valleys the soil is very fertile, and productive of grain, honey, and tobacco. Product of butter in '70, 155,214 lbs. A large number of sheep and swine are raised, the country furnishing good grazing pastures, and wool is a staple product. Value of all live stock in '70, $666,521; cash value of farms in '70, $2,499,297. It has one flour-mill and three saw-mills. Value of home manufactures, $1390. It has 47 manufacturing establishments employing 111 hands; capital, $116,325; annual product, $164,239. It is intersected longitudinally by the Oregon and California railroad. Value of real and personal estate in '70, $2,100,000. Seat of justice, Eugene City.

LANE, EDWARD WILLIAM, PH.D., 1801-76; b. England; prepared for the church, but visited Egypt in 1825, and continued to travel and reside in that country till 1842. Having devoted himself to the study of the manners and customs of the Egyp tians, he published a popular work on that subject in 1836; and, five years later, a new translation of the Arabian Nights, 1841. Other works from his pen are Selections from the Kur-an, 1843; and Arabian Tales and Anecdotes, 1845. He labored for many years at the compilation of an Arabic-English dictionary, which is still incomplete (1880), though six parts of it have been published. He left behind him at his death, in 1876, the manuscript complete for the seventh and eighth volumes of his great work. Mr. Lane's fluency in the Arabic language was extraordinary, and his acquaintance with the customs of the Arabs gave him facilities for acquiring knowledge which no other English writer has possessed.

LANE, JAMES HENRY, 1814-66; b. Lawrenceburg, Ind.; educated for the legal profession, and admitted to the bar. On the outbreak of the Mexican war he volunteered as a private in the 3d Ind. regiment, became its col., and at Buena Vista, where he was in command of a brigade, distinguishe huse.f by his gallantry. Returning to Indiana in 1848, he was elected lieut.gov.. and in 1853 a member of congress. He voted for the repeal of the Missouri compromise, and on the breaking out of the Kansas political troubles, removed to that state, and was a prominent member and chairman of the executive committee of the Topeka convention. He was made president of the Leavenworth constitutional convention of 1857, and on the outbreak of actual hostilities between the "free-state" and "border-ruffian" elements, so-called, was put in chief command of the former. Being elected U. S. senator by the Topeka legislature, his election was held by congress to be invalid, and he was indicted for high-treason. He became senator, however, in 1861, and the same year entered the volunteer service, was named brig. gen., and being in command of a Kansas brigade, defeated the confederates in several battles. He was in Lawrence, Kan., at the time of the Quantrell massacre, and narrowly escaped with his life. He retained his seat in the senate during the war, and in 1865 was re-elected. But in the following year he was attacked with paralysis, and during temporary aberration of mind, committed suicide.

LANE, JOSEPH, b. N. C., 1801; removed to Indiana when 14 years old, and was a clerk in a store. He interested himself in local politics, and was several times elected to the state legislature. He fought in the Mexican war with distinction, was col. 2d Ind. vols., promoted to brigadier and brevet maj. gen. for gallantry, and was wounded at Buena Vista. In 1848 he was appointed governor of Oregon territory, and was sent from there delegate to congress in 1851, and to the U. S. senate in 1859. In 1860 he was nominated for vice-president on the ticket with John C. Breckenridge, by the democratic convention at Baltimore.

LANFRANC, the most eminent of the foreign churchmen who rose to distinction in the medieval church of England, was born of a noble family at Pavia, in 1905, and educated, partly at Pavia, partly at Bologna, for the profession of the law. For a time he followed the profession of an advocate at Pavia; but in the hope of greater distinction, he removed to France, and founded at Avranches a school of law, which soon became one of the most popular in France. Having been way laid and all but murdered by robbers during one of his journeys to Rouen, he was carried to the monastery of Bec, where he was treated with much tenderness; and the deep religious impressions there received determined him to abandon the world and become himself a monk. He was soon (1041) chosen prior of the monastery; and his reputation for piety, as well as the fame for theological learning which he acquired, especially in his controversy on the Eucharist with Berengar, led to his translation in 1062 to the still more important monastery of St. Stephen, at Caen, recently founded by William, duke of Normandy. Having enjoyed the confidence of that prince for many years, he was selected by him, after the conquest of England, to fill the primatial see of Canterbury, and he was induced with much reluctance to accept it in 1070. Having once, however, undertaken the charge, he entered zealously into the policy of his sovereign; and under his spiritual rule the church of England received as strong an infusion of the Norman element as was forced upon the political system of England by the iron hand of the conqueror. Lanfranc outlived William; and to his influence the historians mainly ascribe the peaceful submission with which that monarch's successor, Rufus, was accepted by the kingdom, as well as the comparative moderation of the earlier years of Rufus's reign. The tyranny which has made the name of Rufus odious dates mainly after the death of Lanfranc, which occur

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