"The Circassian women participate in the general character of the nation; they take pride in the courage of their husbands, and reproach them severely when defeated. They polish and take care of the armour of the men. Widows tear their hair, and disfigure themselves with scars, in testimony of their grief. The men had formerly the same custom; but are now grown more tranquil under the loss of their wives and relations. The habitation of a Circassian is composed of two huts, because the wife and husband are not supposed to live together. One of these huts is allotted to the husband, and to the reception of strangers; the other to the wife and family: the court which separates them is surrounded with palisades, or stakes. At meals the whole family is assembled; so that here, as among the Tatars, each village is reckoned at a certain number of kettles. Their food is extremely simple, consisting of only a little meat, some paste made of millet, and a kind of beer composed of the same grain, fermented." The Mamaluks of Egypt were, as is well known, slaves regularly imported from Circassia and Georgia. In Imeritia, Mingrelia, and Guriel, as well as in Georgia, which forms a Persian province, the barons have power of life and death over their vassals; and form a powerful aristocracy, formidable to the prince, who resides at Cutais*. The Dadian, or chief of Mingrelia and Guriel, though possessed of a more extensive country, is tributary to the former sovereign. The religion of all is the Greek; and these provinces can scarcely be regarded as subject to Turkey. In general the most striking feature of manners and customs, in the Turkish empire, is that half the people may be considered as somewhat civilized, while the other half are pastoral wanderers, ranging over extensive wastes. This laxity of government renders travelling in Asia Minor very unsafe; and has proved a great impediment to any exact geographical knowledge of these regions. Under a prudent government, the wandering hordes of Turcomans and Kurds, would be expelled; and regular troops and garrisons maintained on the frontiers; whence industry and the arts might again visit this classical territory. CITIES AND TOWNS. been already described. The capital of the Turkish empire has ALEPPO. Next in dignity and importance is the city of Haleb, or Aleppo, supposed to contain about 250,000 inhabitants. This city is constructed with some elegance, and the tall cypress trees, contrasted with the white minarets of numerous mosques, give it a most picturesque appearancef. The buildings and population seem to be on the increase; but the adjacent villages are deserted. The chief languages are the Syrian and Arabic. The manufactures of silk and cotton are in a flourishing condition; and large caravans frequently arrive from Bagdad and Bassora, charged with the products of Persia and India; Aleppo being the modern Palmyra. Consuls from various European powers reside here, to attend the interests of the respective nations. Ellis's Memoir, p. 57. VOL II. Russel's Aleppo. Browne, 384, &c. DAMASCUS. Damascus is supposed to contain about 180,000 souls. It was formerly celebrated for the manufacture of sabresi which seem to have been constructed, by a method now lost, of alternate thin layers of iron and steel, so as to bend even to the hilt without breaking, while the edge would divide the firmest mail. When Timur subdued Syria, about the beginning of the fifteenth century, he ordered all the artists in steel to migrate into Persia. The manufactures now consist of silk and cotton, chiefly mingled together; and excellent soap is made of oil of olives, with kuli and chalk. From the Mediterranean are imported metals and broad cloths: and the caravans of Bagdad bring Persian and Indian articles. This city also increases, by the gradual depopulation of the villages and country, which last always present the chief symptoms of national prosperity, or decline. The Pashilik of Damascus is esteemed the first in Asia; and the office of Pasha has, in the decline of tne Turkish empire, become in some measure hereditary, with absolute power of life and death, and without any appeal. Smyrna. Smyrna may be regarded us the third city in Asiatic Turkey, containing about 120,000 souls. This flourishing scat of European commerce, and chief mart of the Levant trade, is said to have been founded by Alexander the Great, eminently distinguished from all other conquerors by the foundation, and not the destruction, of cities. In the wars between the Turks and the Greeks, Smyrna sunk into great decline; and was taken with vast slaughter by Timur, in 1402. The excellence of the haven, renders Smyrna the centre of all the traffic o/ Asia Minor; but the frequent visits of the pestilence greatly impede its prosperity*. Prusa. Prusa is a beautiful city, in a romantic situation at the northern bottom of mount Olympus. By Tourncfort's computation of families, the inhabitants may be about 60,000. It is enlivened by numerous springs, which descend from the mountains, and by the proximity of the hot baths. Prusa was formerly the chosen residence of the sultans, and contains many of their tombs. Magnisi, or Magnesia, is also a city of some repute in this quarter of the empire; and Kircagatch has risen to considerable population, from the cultivation of cotton, being about forty miles to the north-east of Magnisi, on the route to Prusaf. Angora. Angora may contain 80,000 inhabitants; and is a striking, and agreeable city, in a lofty situation. The trade is chiefly Chandler, 65. t Hunter's Travels, 1796, 8vo. p. 159. See also the map in Peyssonncl's journey from Smyrna to Sardis, and Thyatira, at the end of his Observations Historiques et Geographiques, &c. Paris, 1765, 4to. This journey is full of inscriptions and antiquities, like most of those to the Levant, and of course contains very little solid information. Voyages to the Levant, as they are called, arc indeed of all others the most common, and the most vague and uninstructive. A few useless inscriptions, and a thousand quotation? from the classics, or descriptions of Egypt and Syria, repeating what has been repeated a hundred times before, constitute what is called a voyage to the Levant. If an able traveller were to investigate the geography, natural history, and other topics of real importance in Asia Miner only, he would supply many deficiencies in modern knowledge. in yarn, of which our shalloons are made; and in their own manufacture of Angora stuffs, made chiefly of the fine hair of a particular breed of goats, which, like that of the cats, occurs in no other country. Yet there seems no peculiarity in the air, situation, or soil, which is a fine red marl. ΤΟΚΑΤ. Tokat is also a flourishing place. The inhabitants are computed at 60,000. The situation is singular, amidst rugged and perpendicular rocks of marble; and the streets are paved, which is a rare circumstance in the Levant. Silk and leather are manufac tures of Tokat; but the chief is that of copper utensils, which are sent to Constantinople, and even to Egypt. The copper is from the mines of Gumiscana, at the distance of three days journey from Trebisond; and from those of Castan Boul, yet richer, and situated ten days journey from Tokat, on the west towards Angora*. Basra. Basra, or Bassora, on the estuary of the Euphrates, and Tigris, must be regarded as rather belonging to an independent Arabian prince, who pays dubious homage to the Porte, but as it has an intimate connexion with Asiatic Turkey, it may be here briefly mentioned as a city of 50,000 inhabitants, but of great commercial consequence, being frequented by numerous vessels f;om Europe and Asia, and the seat of an English consul. Here the various products of Europe and India are exchanged for those of Persia; and opulent caravans proceed to the chief cities of Asiatic Turkey, to all which it is the most central port of the more oriental trade. Bagnan. The great and romantic Bagdad, the seat of the Caliphs, and the scene of many eastern fictions, has now dwindled into a town of about 20,000 inhabitants. Not far to the south are some ruins of the celebrated Babylon, which have been ably illustrated in a recent work of Major Renncllf. Many an important city of antiquity has sunt into a village, and even the village often into a mass of rubbish, under the destructive domination of the Turks, perhaps the only people whose sole occupation has been to destroy. The maps are crowded with many names, now only known by miserable hamlets; and an enumeration which would seem short may yet be complete. The ancient and celebrated city of Jerusalem is reduced to a mean town, chiefly existing by the piety of pilgrims. Towards the frontiers of Persia, the ravages of frequent war have spread additional destruction; yet Erzeron, the capital of Armenia, retains about 25,000 inhabitants. Kars, the extreme town upon the frontiers of Persia, is tolerably fortified; but is an inconsiderable place^. Manufactures. The chief manufactures of Asiatic Turkey have been already incidentally mentioned in the preceding account of the cities; to which may be added the excellent carpets so frequent in England. These, with rhubarb, and several other drugs, may be regarded as the chief articles of commerce. The Levant, or Turkey trade, was formerly of great consequence lo Great Britain: but since the middle of last century has been more • Tournefort, ii. 324. Geography of Herodotus. advantageous to France. Sir James Porter, formerly ambassador at Constantinople, has published several important observations on this subject*. He remarks that many of the stems of our nobility sprung from this great root of opulence: for in former times the Turkey merchants were the most rich and respectable body of men in the city. The capitulations of this commerce, so called because they were mere concessions granted by the Porte, date from the reign of Elizabeth. Though the charter were granted to a company, there was no common stock; but each individual traded in his own way, and upon his own fund. There was a code of regulations: the ships were sent annually and no bullion was allowed to be remitted to Turkey. The decline of this trade appears, from the account of this author, to have arisen from several injudicious bills brought into parliament, which from their severity, induced the merchants to export cloth of an inferior quality. Yet as he confesses that the trade had declined, before the statutes had passed, it seems reasonable to infer, that the avarice of some traders was the real cause of the inferiority of our articles to those of the French, who artfully availed themselves of the opportunity, and by strict regulations maintained their superiority. In the period from 1729, to 1738, the English cloth sent to Constantinople amounted annually to 574 bales; while from 1739, to 1748, it had fallen to 236 bales. For the nature and causes of the decline of our Turkey trade, and the asendency of that of the French, the reader, who wishes for minute information, must be referred to the same judicious traveller. * Observations on the Turki, 1771, 8vo. p. 361. CHAPTER IV. NATURAL GEOGRAPHY. AND CLIMATE AND SEASOKS. FACE OF THE CODNTRY-SOIL AGRICULTURE. RIVERS. LAKES. MOUNTAINS. FORESTS. BOTANY. ZOOLOGY. MINERALOGY. MINERAL WATERS.—NA TURAL CURIOSITIES. Climate Ann Seasons. THE climate of Asia Minor has always been considered as excellent. There is a peculiar softness and serenity in the air, not perceivable on the European side of the Archipelago. The heat of the summer is considerably tempered by the numerous chains of high mountains, somc of which are said to be covered with perpetual snow. Face Of Tne Country. The general appearance of Asiatic Turkey may be regarded as mountainous; but intermingled with large and beautiful plains, which, instead of being covered with rich crops of grain, are pastured by the numerous flocks and herds of the Turcomans. The soil, as may be expected, is extremely various; but that of Asia Minor is chiefly a deep clay; and wheat, barley, and durra, form the chief, if not the only products of agriculture*: But excellent grapes and olives abound; and the southern provinces arc fertile in dates. Agriculture. In Syria the agriculture is in the most deplorable condition; and the instruments and management are alike execrable. The peasants are in the most miserable situation; and though not sold with the soil, like those of Poland, are, if possible, yet more oppressed; barley bread, onions, and water constituting their constant faret. Rivers. The principal river of Asiatic Turkey is, beyond all comparison, the Euphrates, which rises from the mountains of Armenia, a few miles to the north-east of Erzeronf; and chiefly pursues a south-west direction to Semisat, where it would fall into the Mediterranean, if not prevented by a high range of mountains. In this part of its course, the Euphrates is joined by the Morad from the east, a stream almost doubling in length that of Euphrates; so that the latter river might more justly be said to spring from mount Ararat, about 160 British miles to the east of the imputed source. At Semisat, the ancient Samosata, this noble river assumes a southerly direction; then runs an extensive course to the south-east, and after receiving the Tigris, falls by two or three mouths into the gulf of Persia. The comparitive course of the Euphrates may be estimated at about 1400 British miles. Browne, 418. Volnrv, ii. 413. Tournefort, ii. 198. |