opportunity that has come to us, we shall pledge ourselves to be synthetic rather than narrow in our point of view, to emphasize the possible practical connections of botanical problems, and to submerge our personal and institutional temperaments in a spirit of general cooperation to secure results, botany will come to be recognized as a great national asset, and research will enter upon a new era. JOHN M. COULTER

UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

PSYCHIATRY AND THE WAR

THE influence of the war upon psychiatry in Great Britain has been profound and shows itself in many different directions. A most important effect has been to draw psychiatry into closer relations with neurology. As an indirect result of the stringency of the lunacy laws there had come into existence in Great Britain a state unknown in other countries, in which a deep gulf existed between those who deal with the insane and those who treat the neuroses, the latter affections usually coming under the care of physicians otherwise occupied with the treatment of organic nervous disease. This gulf has been largely bridged as a result of the war.

Both groups

of practitioners have been called upon to deal with the enormous mass of psycho-neurosis which the war has produced, with the result that the outlook of each has been greatly widened.

One, and perhaps the most important outcome of this combined activity has been the general recognition of the essential part taken in the production and maintenance of the psycho-neuroses by purely mental factors. In the early stages of the war especial stress was laid on the physical effects of shell explosion, an attitude which found expression in the term shell-shock. As the war has progressed the physical conception of war-neurosis has been gradually replaced by one according to which the vast majority of cases depend on a process of causation in which the factors are essentially mental. The shell explosion or other catastrophe of war, which forms in

so many cases the immediate antecedent of the illness, is only the spark which releases deepseated psychical forces due to the strains of warfare. It has also become clear how large a part is taken in the causation of neurosis by physical factors which only come into action after the soldier has been removed from the scene of warfare.

Not only has war-experience shown the importance of purely mental factors in the production of neurosis, but it has also shown the special potency of certain kinds of mental process, the closely related emotional and instinctive aspects. This knowledge is already having, and will have still more, profound effects upon the science of psychology. This science has hitherto dealt mainly with the intellectual side of mental life and has paid far too little attention to the emotions. Students of certain aspects of mind, and especially those engaged in the study of social psychology, were coming to see how greatly psychologists had over-estimated the intellectual factor. The results of warfare have now compelled psychiatrists to consider from the medical point of view the conflicts between the instinctive tendencies of the individual and the forces of social tradition which workers in other fields have come to recognize as so potent for good and evil in the lives of mankind.

ness.

Closely related to this movement is another which has led those dealing with the psychoneuroses to recognize far more widely than hitherto the importance of mental experience which is not directly accessible to consciousWarfare has provided us with numberless examples of the processes of dissociation and suppression by means of which certain bodies of experience become shut off from the general mass making up the normal personality, but yet continue to exist in an active state, producing effects of the most striking kind, both mental and physical.

An interesting by-product of this increased attention to the instinctive, emotional and unconscious aspects of mind has been a great alteration in the attitude of psychiatrists to

wards the views of the psychoanalytic school. Before the war many psychologists were coming to see the importance of Freud's work to their science, but within the medical profession, the general attitude was one of uncompromising hostility. This state of affairs has been wholly altered by the war. The partisans of Freud have been led by experience of the war-neurosis to see that sex is not the sole factor in the production of psycho-neurosis, but that conflict arising out of the activity of other instincts, and especially that of self-preservation, takes an active if not the leading rôle. On the other hand, independent students who, partly through lack of opportunity, had not previously committed themselves to either side, have been forced by the facts to see to how great an extent the nature of the psycho-neuroses of warfare support the views of Freud and have made it their business to sift the grain from the chaff and distinguish between the essential and the accidental in his scheme. To such an extent has the reconciliation gone that it has recently been possible for the chief adherent of Freud to read a communication before the leading medical society of London without exciting any trace of acrimony and only such opposition as must be expected when dealing with a subject as new and complex as that under discussion. There are many signs that the end of the war will find psychiatrists and psychologists ready to consider dispassionately the value of Freud's scheme as a basis for the study of the psychoses as well as of the psycho-neuroses of civil life, ready to accept the good and reject the false without the ignorant prejudice and bitter rancor which characterized every discussion of the subject before the war.

Concurrently with the general recognition of the essentially psychical of neurosis, there has taken place a great development on the therapeutical side. As a result of the war psycho-therapy has taken its place among the resources of the physician. There is still far from general agreement concerning the value of different forms of psycho-therapeutic treatment, but work is steadily going on in test

ing the value of different methods. In the early stages of the war extensive use was made of hypnotism and hypnoidal suggestion, and owing to the striking character of its immediate results this mode of treatment still has a considerable vogue. The general trend of opinion, however, has been against its employment as tending to undermine the strength of character which is needed to enable the victim of neurosis to combat the forces which have temporarily overcome him. Many of those who used hypnotism largely in the early days of the war have given it up in favor of other less rapid and dramatic but more efficacious modes of treatment.

The treatment which has had most success consists of a form of mental analysis which resembles to some extent the psycho-analysis of Freud, but differs from it in making little attempt to go deeply into the unconscious, except in so far as any dissociation present has been the result of recent shocks of warfare. Attention is paid especially to those parts of experience which without any special resistance become accessible to the memory of the patient, and to seek by means of the knowledge so acquired to demonstrate to the patient the essentially psychical nature of his malady. By a process of reeducation he is then led to adjust himself to the conditions created by his illness.

The knowledge already gained, and still more that which will become accessible when those at present fully occupied with the needs of the moment have leisure to record their experience, will be of the utmost importance to the future of psychiatry. Already before the war a movement was on foot to bring about reforms in the treatment of mental disorder, the measures especially favored being the establishment of psychiatric clinics and the removal of curable and slight examples of psychosis from association with more chronic cases. This movement will be greatly assisted by the knowledge and experience gained during the war. Those in the medical profession who are moving towards reform will gain a large body of support from many members of the laity who have come through

INTELLECTUAL INTERCOURSE BETWEEN ALLIED AND FRIENDLY COUNTRIES

IN the beginning of 1917, there was founded in Italy, with its seat at the University of Rome, a society having the title: Associazione italiana per l'intesa intellettuale fra i pasi alleati ed amici (Italian society for intellectual intercourse between allied and friendly countries). Its president is Senator V. Volterra, and the names best known in the literature and science of Italy are represented on the committee which directs its work.

The name of the society is self explanatory -in the publication of a quarterly review, entitled L'intesa intellettuale, its work has already begun in a definite way. The purpose of the review, which is the same as that of the society, may be explained as follows: (1) More active and frequent intercourse between universities, academies of science, and, in general, educational institutions of the allied and friendly countries; (2) increased teaching of the Italian language in foreign countries, with greater extension in Italy of the teaching of the languages of allied and friendly countries; (3) exchange of teachers of every order and rank; (4) reciprocal acknowledgment of the requirements for admission to the universities and courses of lectures; (5) exchange of students either for special study or to acquire general knowledge of the different countries; (6) to facilitate the exchange of publications and books and to increase knowledge of Italian works; (7) to

make known by translation the best Italian works; (8) cooperation in the field of science and its practical applications, and especially in the law in regard to questions of private law; (9) intellectual relations of every kind between people who wish to render more close, durable and fruitful the union of the nations which fought the battles of civilization together.

Some of these purposes coincide with those stated in the outline of the plan for an interallied research council proposed by Dr. G. E. Hale. In the National Research Council, founded by him at the beginning of the present war, Dr. Hale planned a constant interchange of methods and results which would secure the complete cooperation of the Allies and the United States, and provide means of reaching common agreement between them in regard to the immediate necessities of the war, and now for the more fruitful works of peace.

Probably in no country other than Italy are to be found so many foreign institutions for research in science, literature, history and the arts. These are of course means of cooperation and exchange, but the exchange is now only on one side owing to the lack of similar organizations for Italian people in foreign countries. The principal difficulty in cooperating with us is certainly that of language; and there is no doubt that the English and Italian speaking peoples should become more familiar with each other's language in order to acquaint themselves better with Italian and English works.

As exchange of teachers and students is one of the best methods of overcoming this particular difficulty, in July, 1917, our Ministry of Public Instruction elected a committee with Senator V. Volterra as its president to study and draft a law regulating the exchange of teachers and the interscholastic relations of Italy with foreign countries. Early in 1918 the committee presented its plan, in a report which gives its fundamental conceptions and principal arrangements. These are given in the first article of the first issue of L'intesa intellettuale and are here summarized.

According to its program the committee proposes that an independent office be instituted in the Ministry of Public Instruction to promote and direct the exchange of teachers with foreign countries, to send abroad Italian men of letters for historical or scientific research or to teach, to summon foreign teachers or students to Italy, to regulate fellowships, to provide eventually for the foundation of Italian institutions of higher education outside the boundaries of Italy, and to cultivate in every way our intellectual relations with other nations.

The office will consist of a council and an executive board, with the Minister of Public Instruction as president of both. In the council, composed of twenty-one members, the faculties of the universities, the Minister of Public Instruction with the two general directors of higher and secondary instruction, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, that of Agriculture, of Industry and Commerce, and the Congress are all duly represented. As the Ministry of Public Instruction is given power to elect two members at large, elements outside the school and state administration may also have representation.

With full autonomy in its deliberations and in the administration of funds which must be assigned by the departments concerned, the office has that freedom necessary to accomplish its varied and delicate functions.

The council issues every year a general program of the various activities of the office, but the really active body is the executive board composed of seven members elected by the council from its own members.

The law which has already been mentioned gives rules for those going to foreign countries to teach or to study, providing for their legal status and for that of foreign professors who come temporarily to Italy for the purpose of teaching. The Italian professors who, by the arrangement of the office and with the approval of the proper ministry, go to foreign countries, are divided into three classes according to the length of time they are to be absent from the kingdom: for less than one

year, for more than one year and less than five, or for more than five years. On the foreign professor who teaches in Italy is conferred the dignity of the Italian professor of equal rank, and legal validity is given to his course of lectures, under certain conditions.

The last part of these regulations determines the legal value of studies pursued outside the kingdom, of study of foreigners in Italy, and of the fellowships. In general, studies and examinations taken in state institutions or those of equal rank in foreign countries are accepted as of the same value as studies and examinations taken in schools of the same rank in Italy. The fellowships are not restricted, as hitherto, to graduates, but may also be awarded to university students who desire, for the sake of some special work, to visit laboratories, libraries, or foreign archives. Every year a certain number of fellowships is offered to students and graduates (provided they are of not more than two years standing) of high schools, normal and professional schools, and special institutions, in order to make it possible for them to follow courses of study in foreign countries. Among the advantages of such a plan, by no means the least important will be the preparation of good teachers of foreign languages.

The outline given here offers nothing more that the general plans of an extended program. The law itself will constitute the basis for proposed international conventions to facilitate and promote our intellectual relations with foreign countries, and to extend knowledge of Italy beyond our boundaries on the one hand and, on the other, to gain information about the friendly countries.

To give rapid development to this plan and to cooperate with the state institutions in Italy and abroad for its accomplishment is of course one of the most important tasks of the Italian Association. Probably similar associations in the allied and friendly countries will be able to cooperate with it for this purpose.

The other articles of the first two issues of L'intesa intellettuale which reached this country deal with the organization of the

schools and educational institutions in Italy and abroad. These articles are by Piero Giacosa, on the "Institutes of Experimental Sciences" (physics and chemistry); by Pietro Bonfante, on the "New Scientific Degrees"; by Eugénie Strong, on the " Britannic School in Rome"; by Alfredo Ascoli, on a "Legislative Alliance"; by Andrea Galante, on the "English Education Bill of 1917 "; by L. Duchesne, on the "Transformation of the University Teaching in France"; by V. Scialoja, on the "Giuridic Entente between France and Italy"; by P. S. Leicht, on the "College of Spain and Flanders in Bologna," and by G. Castelnuovo, on the "Reform of the Engineering Schools in France."

We should soon like to see some articles on the educational institutions and research laboratories of the United States and to learn of their vast development and progress along these lines. We would recommend that American scholars write these articles and in them present also their suggestions for the most interesting studies and fields for research in science, literature and law, and indicate the schools, colleges and laboratories that might most profitably be visited by Italian colleagues and students, in order to begin this intercourse and cooperation from which many advantages are to be expected.

WASHINGTON, D. C.

GIORGIO ABETTI

GEORGE FRANCIS ATKINSON

IN the death of George Francis Atkinson American botany has suffered an incalculable loss. Stricken unexpectedly he died at the beginning of what promised to be his most productive period of activity. Having served for more than a quarter of a century as professor of botany in Cornell University he had only recently been relieved by the trustees of all teaching and administrative duties in order that he might give the remaining years of his life to uninterrupted research. He hoped particularly to be able to complete and put in final form for publication his mono

ex

graphic studies on the fleshy fungi of North America. In the pursuit of this undertaking he had gone without assistants for an tended collecting trip to the far west. Here with characteristic enthusiasm for his work and lured by the surpassing richness of the fungous flora near Mt. Ranier he overtaxed his strength, exposed himself to inclement weather, and contracted a severe cold. This rapidly developed into influenza followed by pneumonia, and he died on November 15, in the Tacoma Hospital at Tacoma, Washington. His end came suddenly and found him alone far from friends and home. After his removal to the hospital, though critically ill, his chief worry concerned the recently collected specimens which he had been forced to leave uncared for in the room of his boarding house. Shortly before he died, in his last delirium, he attempted to dictate to his nurse some notes concerning his fungi. Thus death found him engrossed to the very end in the science which he had so long served and which he loved so well. He lies buried at South Haven, Mich., near the home of his boyhood. Ithaca and Cornell will not see him again. To his friends and colleagues it is a thing incredible that his genial personality and brilliant mind are gone from among us. The words, "Professor Atkinson is dead " have passed from lip to lip and left us almost unconvinced. The memory of him and his work now so clearly before us will serve as a guiding influence through the coming years. It is particularly gratifying to the writer to be able to give here an expression of his appreciation of one whom he revered as a great teacher and valued as a true friend.

Professor Atkinson was born in Raisinville, Monroe County, Michigan, January 26, 1854. He received his preliminary academic training at Olivet College, coming later to Cornell University, from which he was graduated in 1885. The following year he began his scientific career as professor of zoology at the University of North Carolina, and between the years 1886 and 1890 published about fifteen papers in the field of zoology. In 1888 he accepted the professorship of botany and