SAN JACINTO

and war-claim agency, and a bureau of vital statistics.

In the beginning of 1864 a series of great fairs was inaugurated, either by officers of the commission or by its friends, in aid of its treasury. They occurred at Chicago, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Pittsburg, Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, New York City, Philadelphia, and many other towns and cities. The net product reached $2,736,868.84. The total amount in money received from the people by the Sanitary Commission up to May 1, 1866, was $4,962,014.26; but at least $2,000,000 more was raised and expended in its interest by its branches. Free transportation by railway and express companies and communication by telegraph lines saved the commission at least two thirds of the cost in these departments of its work. The aggregate value of the services rendered by the public to the commission was estimated at $25,000,000.

San Jacinto (sän jă-sin'tō), river of Texas; rises in Walker Co., and flows SE. 120 m. to San Jacinto Bay, an arm of Galveston Bay; navigable 45 m. On its banks, 2 m. SW. of the junction of the river and Buffalo bayou, the closing battle of the War of Texan IndeGen. pendence was fought, April 21, 1836. Houston, in command of the Texan forces, had been gradually falling back E., toward San Jacinto River and Bay, before the advance of the Mexican army under Gen. Antonio Lopez

de Santa Anna from the W. The armies were marching on parallel lines, Houston's object being to reach the river and hold the ferry at its mouth, Santa Anna's to cut off his retreat and capture him. They reached the bay boundary almost simultaneously, and took position within a mile of each other. On the 20th some skirmishing took place, with but On the 21st, with the cry, "Relittle result. member the Alamo!" the Texans made a sudden charge, and at the expiration of an hour Santa Anna had fled, and the whole of his army not slaughtered in the action had surrendered. The force of the Mexicans was The 1,536; that of the Texans about 700. latter had 8 men killed and 25 wounded.

San Joaquin (hō-ä-kën') Riv'er, stream which rises at the foot of a small glacier near the summit of Mount Lyell, on E. border of the Sierra Nevada, Cal., flows SW. for nearly 100 m., then turns NW. and traverses the magnificent valley of same name, and, joining the Sacramento, enters Suisun Bay. At high water the outflow of the Tulare system of lakes is discharged by the San Joaquin, which is navigable to Stockton for large steamers for a good part of the year. The river is some 350 m. long.

San'jo Saneyosh'i, 1836-91; Japanese statesman; b. Kioto, of an old, princely family; early became prominent in state matters, directing his efforts to the restoration of the imperial power; his coöperation at court was invaluable to Saigo and the other leaders of the malcontents in the provinces. After the restoration, 1868, he became vice premier, and, July, 1871, premier, a position which he held until 1886, when he became chancellor.

SANKEY

San José (hō-sa'), capital of Costa Rica and of province of San José; in valley at foot of chain of volcanic mountains; 95 m. from Limon on the Caribbean; is the commercial center of the republic; has a national theater, a cathedral, national library, university, various government buildings, and two fine parks. San José is about 4,000 ft. above the sea, and consequently has a temperate climate; owing to frequency of earthquakes, all buildings are San low, and churches are without towers. José was founded about 1750. Pop. (1907) 26,682.

San José, capital of Santa Clara Co., Cal.; 47 m. S. of San Francisco; in the heart of the beautiful Santa Clara valley; connected with San Francisco by three lines of railway and a waterway through the bay, and with the Pacific at Santa Cruz and Monterey by rail. Chief industry, the preparation and handling of fruit; output of agriculture and horticulture of the valley amounts to over $6,000,000 annually. The pueblo of San José was established 1782 by Spaniards. Under the first constitution of California the state capital was here. The city suffered severely from the earthquake that, with ensuing fire, wrought vast damage in San Francisco, 1906. Pop. (1906) est. 23,564.

San Juan (hô-än'), Spanish, SAN JUAN DE and port of Porto Rico, W. Indies; on a bay PUERTO RICO, capital and most important city of the N. coast, and on a coral island which shelters the bay; has one of the safest and most commodious harbors in the W. Indies,

but the entrance is somewhat difficult. Chief buildings the Jesuit College, the cathedral, and the former palace of the captain general; San Juan leading exports, coffee and sugar. was founded by Ponce de Leon, 1511; sacked and burned by the English freebooter Drake, 1595; destroyed by the English admiral Clifford, 1597, which led to the strengthening of its fortifications; unsuccessfully attacked by the Dutch, 1625; later repelled a French and an English attack; bombarded, May, 1898, by Rear Admiral Sampson, while in search of Cervera's fleet. Pop. (1899) 32,048.

San Juan de Fu'ca, Strait of, entrance to Puget Sound and Gulf of Georgia; S. of Vancouver's Island and N. of State of Washington.

San Juan del Norte (děl nōr'tā), seaport town of Nicaragua; on the Caribbean Sea, at the mouth of the San Juan River; 190 m. ESE. of Managua; is built on a low, sandy point, backed by swampy lands; the situation is insalubrious; is the only port of importance on the Atlantic side of the republic. Pop. abt. 1,500.

San Juan Riv'er (Nicaragua). See NICARA

GUA.

San'key, Ira David, 1840-1908; American evangelist; b. Edinburgh, Pa.; in business at New Castle, Pa., 1855-70, when he joined Dwight L. Moody in evangelistic work in Chicago, Ill. They labored together in Great He comBritain, 1873-75, and again 1883. posed several popular sacred tunes, and pub

SANKHYA

lished the compilations "Sacred Songs and Solos," Gospel Hymns,” “Winnowed Songs," etc.

Sankh'ya, the oldest system of Indic speculation. Tradition makes the Sankhya system older than Buddha (older, say, than 500 B.C.), and maintains that Buddha was influenced by it. The designation "enumerative philosophy was applied to the system because of the importance attached by the Sankhyans to the establishment of their twenty-five principles and to their numerical classifications in general. Its fundamental doctrine is consistent

pessimism, closely connected with the widespread belief in transmigration, with its horrible sequence of death after death. In only one way on this point all the Indic systems are agreed-can one escape the necessity of rebirth, namely, by the recognition of the highest truth. One of the preliminaries to this recognition is a life of complete renunciation. The decisiveness with which the existence of an actual god is denied is one of the characteristic features of the genuine early Sankhya, which is, accordingly, properly called atheistic. The Sankhya recognizes two eternal entities, matter and souls. An offshoot of the Sankhya system is the Yoga philosophy.

San Lazzaro (sän lädʼzä-rō), small island of the Venetian lagoons, first mentioned in the twelfth century when a hospital for lepers was established there. After the disappearance of leprosy it was used for other hospital purposes, until the Venetian republic ceded it to Peter Mechitar and his Armenian followers who had fled before the Turks. The Armenian church and convent contain many objects of

interest.

San Luis Potosi', capital of state of same name, Mexico, in a valley 6,200 ft. above the sea; 70 m. NNE. of Guanajuato; has a university, school of engineering, mint, etc., with considerable manufactures; is an important railway center. Pop., including suburbs (1900), 61,020.

San Marino, oldest and smallest independent republic in the world; in E. central Italy; governed by a legislative senate of sixty, an executive council, a general council of heads of families, and two presidents elected for six months. This has been the form of government since 1847, when the constitution was considerably changed; area, 32 sq. m., embracing five small villages, with pop. of about 11,000. The capital, of same name, is on crest of a mountain 2,635 ft. above the sea. It is said to have been founded early in the fourth century by St. Marinus, a converted stone mason, who fled from Rimini during the Diocletian persecution. Borgo, 500 ft. lower down, is the residence of the principal inhabitants. There is a standing army of 38 officers and 950 men. The principal products are fruit, silkworms, and wine; powder is manufactured.

San Martin (mär-tēn′), José de, 1778–1850; Spanish-American military officer; b. Yapeyú, Misiones (now in Argentina); educated in Spain; distinguished himself in the wars with

SANS-CULOTTES

France; attained rank of lieutenant colonel; returned to S. America on outbreak of war of independence, offered his services to the patriot junta, and organized the Mounted Grenadiers; also aided in organizing the Lautaro Lodge, a secret society which became the most important political influence in the country. In 1813 he became commander of the patriot forces in upper Peru or Bolivia. In January, 1817, with 4,000 men he crossed the Uspallata Pass, 12,300 ft. above the sea, and attacked the Spaniards in Chile, winning many victories, notably at Chacabuco, February 12, 1817, and Maypú, April 5, 1818, which secured Chilean independence. In 1820 he marched into Peru, drove the Spaniards into the interior, declared the country independent (1821), and assumed the dignity of protector, but magnanimously resigned it to Bolivar, 1822. The rest of his life was spent in France, in comparative poverty. The independence of S. America was largely due to him.

San Miguel (mē-gel'), town of Salvador; capital of department of same name; on the San Miguel River; center of a rich agricultural region (indigo, etc.). Pop. (1906) 24,768. The San Miguel volcano, 10 m. SW. of the town, is 6,000 ft. high, and one of the most active in Salvador.

Sannaza'ro (sän-nä-dzä'rō), Jacopo, 14581530; Italian poet; b. Naples; early received great favor from King Frederick III of Naples as a reward for his poems; followed the king into exile, 1501, and did not return until after his death; best-known poem, 66 Arcadia," a series of idyls, partly in prose, partly in verse. His Latin poems include epigrams, among which is the famous poem in praise of Venice, which gained a reward of 600 ducats from the senate.

San Reʼmo, town of Porto Maurizio, Italy; 26 m. NE. of Nice; railway station on line from Genoa to Nice; on a slope descending to the sea, with rich olives behind it, and surrounded by luxuriant orchards of lemons and oranges. There is an old town with steep and narrow streets. The new town is a favorite resort of invalids. Pop. commune (1901) 21,440.

San Salvador (republic). See SALVADOR.

San Salvador, capital and largest city of Republic of Salvador, Central America; on a branch of the Lempa; 2,270 ft. above sea; founded 1528; removed to its present site, 1539; damaged by earthquakes 1575, 1593, 1625, 1656, 1798, 1839, 1879, and destroyed 1854, 1873. As rebuilt, all houses and public buildings are of wood; has a university, naedifices are low; the cathedral and many other tional palace, normal college, national theater, etc., and a thriving trade. Pop. of city proper (1901) 59,540; port, La Libertad.

San Salvador Is'land. See BAHAMA ISLANDS.

Sans-Culottes (sän'kü-lōt'), name bestowed early in the first French Revolution upon the lower classes of the populace from the fact that they wore pantaloons instead of knee

SANSKRIT

SANTA ANA

San'skrit, literary language of the Aryan inhabitants of India. Two principal reasons have led to its study: the intrinsic interest attaching to its extensive Sanskrit literature, which reveals the thought and life of a large and highly endowed race, and the fact that, of all the Indo-European languages, the Sanskrit has, on the whole, best conserved the pristine features of their common parent speech. The application of the comparative method to the study of genetically related tongues is due in largest measure to the study of Sanskrit, which has thus proved to be the most important factor in the revolutionizing of some parts of classical philology and in the creation of Germanic philology.

Originally a vernacular dialect in Hindustan, Sanskrit has for nearly or quite two thousand years been kept artificially in use, like the Latin in Europe, by the transmitted usages of an educated caste, to serve as the means of learned intercourse and composition. Its name (sanskrta, completed, perfected) denotes it as "the cultivated, elaborated, or perfected form of speech," in distinction from the uncultivated dialects, called Prakrit (prakṛti, nature), which sprang from or were contemporaneous with it. The Sanskrit is ordinarily written in a character called dêvanâgarî, “divine city," which in its present fully developed form is of a date several centuries later than the Christian era. The ancient alphabet from which it is descended was derived from a Semitic source. The dévanagari is written from left to right; it is a complete mode of writing, representing every analyzable sound by a separate sign; it is syllabic, each consonant implying a short a, if the sign of no other vowel is attached to it; if more consonants than one are to be spoken with one vowel, their signs are united into a single compound character. As regards the etymological part of grammar, the distinguishing character of the Sanskrit is its remarkable preservation of original materials and processes, the great regularity and consequent transparency of its formative methods. In it the Indo-European roots are more numerously and faithfully preserved than by any other member of the family. The whole system of inflection is most nearly accordant with that of Greek; it is richer in declension, but poorer in conjugation.

The most ancient literature of India comprises the Vedic, and the two epics, the Mahabharata and the "Ramayana." The proper Sanskrit literature counts by thousands its works still in existence. The period it covers stretches, if the Vedas be included, from at least 1500 B.C. to our own day. With insignificant exceptions it is all composed in meter. Every department of knoweldge and branch of inquiry is represented in it, with the single exception of history. This exception robs this literature of one great source of worth and interest, and much of it is trivial and tedious. Of epic or quasi-epic poems are the "Raghuvansa " ("Race of Raghu”), “Ku

and "Nalodaya" ("Rise of Nala "), all by Kalidasa; Magha's "Death of Sisupala," and Harsha's "Naishadhiya." In lyric and erotic poetry are the "Ritusanhâra ("Seasons") and Meghadûta ("Cloud Messenger ") of Kalidasa, and the "Gita-Govinda" of Jayadeva. The "Centuries" of Bhartrihari, and other like works, are aphorismic. Of the collections of fables, the "Panchatantra" has entered almost every W. literature as the fables of Bidpai or Pilpay. A somewhat later collection of the same materials is the " Hitopadesa ("Salutary Instruction"). The most noted collection of tales is the "Kathâsaritsagara' " ("Ocean of Streams of Narration "). The most celebrated dramas are the "Mrichhakati " ("Toy Cart") of Sudraka, and the different works of Kalidasa, as the "Sakuntala," the "Urvasi," and 66 Malavika and Agnimitra."

The Purânas form a separate class of works, being the religious literature of the middle period, later than the Vedic, preceding the modern tantras and shastras. The law books are a development of a part of the Vedic literature. The most famous is the code ascribed to Manu. Of the scientific literature, the grammar is entitled to the first place. The most ancient extant authority, Panini, is supreme; the immense grammatical literature is made up almost solely of commentaries on his work. The Buddhist Sanskrit literature is immense. Nearly all there is of true science in the astronomy of the Hindus was learned by them from the Greeks. They have made in arithmetic and algebra remarkable original progress; and the Hindu system of decimal notation has made its way, through the Arabs, to the exclusive use of modern enlightened nations, our usual figures being by origin letters of the Sanskrit alphabet. The medical literature of the Hindus is regarded as well deserving study. Rhetoric, versification, and music are each represented in a department of the literature.

Sanson (sän-sōn'), Nicolas, 1600-67; French cartographer; b. Abbeville; was teacher of geography to Louis XIII, afterwards royal geographer, and prepared a great number of maps of the Roman Empire, etc. His two sons, Adrien and Guillaume, succeeded him as royal geographers, and after them followed his grandnephew, Robert de Vaugondy.

Santa Ana, or Anna, Antonio Lopez de, Mexican general; b. Talaha; began his military career, 1821, against the royalists; took part in the movements which overthrew Iturbide, Pedraza, Guerrero, and Bustamante; became president, 1833; crushed a formidable insurrection, 1835, and carried into effect a centralizing policy. An insurrection having broken out in Texas early in 1836, he took the field in person, stormed the ALAMO (q.v.) and massacred its defenders, but at San Jacinto was totally routed by the Texan army under Houston, April 21st. The next day he was taken prisoner, and his functions were at once suspended by the Mexican Govt. In 1837 he returned to Mexico, and in the defense of Vera Cruz against the