POLLOCK and Spanish campaigns; later commanded in Further Spain against Sextus Pompey; was consul, 40; assigned to the province of Transpadane Gaul. In 39 he made a successful campaign in Illyria, and received a triumph. He wrote a history of the civil war, seventeen books, and some tragedies, none of which are extant, and established the first public library in Rome. Pollock, Sir Frederick, 1845- ; English jurist; called to the bar, 1871; several times examiner in law at Cambridge and other universities; Prof. of Jurisprudence at University College, London, 1882-83; of Law in the Inns of Court, 1884-90; Corpus Prof. of Jurisprudence at Oxford, 1883-1903; lecturer in Univ. of Calcutta, 1893-94; editor of The Law Quarterly Review after 1885, and of the law reports after 1895; leader in the modern school of historical and analytical law writers. Pollock. See COALFISH. Pollux, Julius, Greek scholar; b. Naucratis, Egypt, abt. 130 A.D.; lived in Athens as teacher of rhetoric and philosophy; his "Onomasticon" is a kind of dictionary in which the principal words relating to certain subjects are collected into groups, defined, and illustrated by quotations. The work is of manifold interest to the student of the Greek language, literature, and art. Pollux. See CASTOR AND POLLUX. Po'lo, Marco, abt. 1254-1324; Venetian traveler; he set out for the East, 1271, with his father Nicolo and his uncle Maffeo, who had recently returned from a nineteen-years' absence in Asia as traders. They passed through Palestine, N. Persia, and Tartary, and, 1275, reached the capital of Cathay (China). Kublai Khan appointed Marco to various important offices, and he visited many parts of China and the neighboring regions. On their return they accompanied a Persian embassy by sea, touching at Borneo, Sumatra, the Nicobar and Andaman islands, Ceylon, and the Carnatic, and landing in the Persian Gulf, 1292. They then went through Kurdistan and Mingrelia to Trebizond on the Black Sea, and taking ship arrived at Venice, 1295. They found difficulty in persuading their friends of their identity, and their stories were not believed. Even on his deathbed Marco was urged to retract his alleged falsehoods; but he solemnly reaffirmed all his statements, and there is now no doubt that he spoke substantially the truth. He was the first to make known to Europeans the existence of Japan. Maffeo became one of the principal magistrates of Venice. Marco was put in command of a galley in the fleet sent against the Genoese, off the coast of Dalmatia, and was wounded in the ensuing engagement and carried prisoner to Genoa. During his four or five years' captivity he dictated to a fellow prisoner the account of his travels, finished, 1298. It was probably written and first published in French, and translated into Latin during Marco's lifetime. Polo, game of ball played on horseback; originated among British officers in India; intro POLYBIUS | duced into the U. S., 1876. Ponies are used, whose height is limited to fourteen hands; the "mallets must be 4 ft. 4 in. long. It is played by sides, and the object is to drive the ball from the center of the ground through either of the goals, the side gaining the most goals being the winner. It is similar to hockey," except that hockey is played on foot. WATER POLO is a game played by swimmers. Sides are chosen, and the attempt made while swimming to force a football through the opponents' goal. This game has generally been confined to baths in gymnasiums. Polo'nium, metallic radioactive element found in pitchblende, 1898, by Prof. Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and wife, of Paris, discoverers also of radium. It is difficult to extract, as pitchblende contains many other minerals. Polonium, unlike radium, loses its radioactivity slowly. It has been regarded as a radioactive form of bismuth and not a distinct element. Polta'va, or Pultowa, capital of government of Poltava, Russia; on the Vorskla, tributary of the Dnieper; 88 m. SW. of Kharkoff; has manufactures of tobacco and leather and four annual fairs, at which horses, cattle, leather, wool, hides, etc., are sold to the value of about $12,000,000 annually. June 27, 1709, Peter the Great won here a decisive victory over Charles XII, in commemoration of which a large monument has been raised in the principal square. Pop. (1897) 53,703. Polyan'dry, marriage of one woman to several husbands at the same time; the antithesis of polygamy, the marriage of one man to several wives; has been practiced by many peoples from ancient Greece down, and now exists in many parts of the globe. Spencer in his "Sociology" considers the custom in four phases: (1) One wife with several unrelated husbands, and each of the husbands with other unrelated wives; (2) unrelated husbands with but one wife; (3) husbands that are related; (4) husbands that are brothers. See POLYG AMY. Polyan'thus. See PRIMROSE. Polyb'ius, abt. 204-122 B.C.; Greek historian; b. Megalopolis, Arcadia; son of Lycortas, who succeeded Philopomen as head of the Achæan League. After the defeat of Perseus of Macedon at Pydna, 168, 1,000 Achæans, among whom was Polybius, were carried to Italy to be tried for not having aided the Romans. Through the influence of Fabius and Scipio, sons of Emilus Paulus, Polybius was permitted to dwell in their father's house at Rome, and a strong friendship sprang up between the historian and Scipio. After seventeen years' exile, he accompanied the survivors home. He joined Scipio in the third Punic War, and was present at the destruction of Carthage, hastened to the Peloponnesus after the reduction of Corinth, and did much to mitiHis great gate the severity of the victors. work is his history, in forty books, giving an account of the growth of the Roman power from 220 B.C., where the histories of Timæus and Aratus of Sicyon left off, to 146, the year POLYCARP, SAINT of the destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Only five books remain entire, but fragments of the rest are extant. Pol'ycarp, Saint, abt. 70-156 A.D.; one of the early Christian Fathers; b. probably Smyrna; became a disciple of St. John the Evangelist, who consecrated him Bishop of Smyrna. During the controversy about the celebration of Easter he went to consult Anicetus, Bishop of Rome, against whom he defended the practice of the Eastern Church; and he distin guished himself while at Rome by his opposition to the Marcian and Valentinian heresies. During the persecution under Marcus Aurelius he was burned at the stake in Smyrna. Polycarp wrote several homilies and epistles, all of which are now lost except a short epistle to the Philippians. Day, January 26th. Pol'ychromy, application of varied and generally bright colors to buildings, statuary, and other objects; also the study or theory of this art. Most ancient peoples decorated their buildings inside and out with painting in vivid colors. When this was not done it was because the materials of the building or of its facing were naturally varied in color: Thus the frieze of the Erechtheion at Athens was in black marble, with white-marbled figures in relief on it, and the interiors of Roman temples, basilicas, and palaces were lined with variegated natural marbles. Oriental nations, both those of the Far East and the Mohammedan peoples of the Levant, show skill in polychromy. The differences between these nations in their use of color in this way are considerable. Thus the Japanese excel in the combination of browns and grays, gold of different tints, bronze, and other alloys, and generally in all the effects of subdued and delicate color, while the Chinese surpass all other peoples of modern times in handling dark and light blue, pure green, vivid yellow, orange, and white. Polycle'tus, Greek sculptor; flourished abt. 430 B.C.; said to have been a pupil of the Argive Ageladas, in whose school Phidias and Myron were his fellow students; was judged to have surpassed Phidias in images of men, though not in those of the gods. His "Spear Bearer " "9 was so exquisitely proportioned that it was called the canon or rule. Polycletus wrote a treatise on the proportions of the human form. He was considered the greatest architect of his time. Polyc'rates, d. 522 B.C.; Tyrant of Samos; seized sovereignty of Samos, and made war with unvarying success on the neighboring territories; furnished forty galleys to Cambyses for the invasion of Egypt, manning them with his personal enemies. They deserted, returned to Samos, and attacked Polycrates, but were defeated. Afterwards Orates, the satrap of Sardis, lured him into Magnesia, where he was crucified. Polyde'monism. See ANIMISM. Polyg'amy, state of a man having two or more wives at the same time. The state of a woman having two or more husbands at the POLYHEDRON same time is called polyandry. In ancient times polygamy was practiced by all the E. nations, and was sanctioned, or tolerated, by their religions. In the Homeric age it seems to have existed to some extent among the Greeks, but during the latter development_of Greek civilization it disappeared. To the Romans and the Gotho-Germanic races it was un known. With the Jews it was common among the patriarchs and tolerated by the law of Moses, but toward the beginning of our era the custom seems to have died out. The Koran sanctions it, but among the Arabs it does not prevail as a rule. Among Christians, although the New Testament contains no positive injunction against it, it was never tolerated, except among the Mormons. In modern times polygamy is common only among the savage African and Malayo-Polynesian races and among the degraded nations of Asia. POLYANDRY. See the cost of Cardinal Ximenes at Alcalá de Henares, Spain), six volumes, folio, 1520; it was followed by the Antwerp, eight volumes, folio, 1569-72; the Parisian, ten volumes, folio, 1628-45, and, greatest of all, the London, six volumes, folio, 1654-57. Pol'ygon, plane figure bounded on all sides by straight lines. The bounding lines are called sides of the polygon, and the points at which they meet are called vertices of the polygon; the entire boundary line is called the perimeter. Polygons are divided into classes according to the number of their sides or angles. Polygons of three sides are called triangles; those of four sides are quadrilaterals; those of five sides, pentagons; those of six sides, hexagons; and so on. If the sides of a polygon are equal, the polygon is said to be equilateral; if its angles are equal, it is called equiangular. A regular polygon is both equilateral and equiangular. A closed broken line, all of whose sides are not in a single plane, is often called a twisted polygon. three or more planes passing through a comPolyhe'dral An'gle, solid angle formed by mon point. If there are but three planes, the angle is called trihedral. The intersections of the bounding planes are called edges of the polyhedral angle, and their common point is called the vertex of an angle. If a sphere be described about the vertex as a center with a radius equal to 1, the part of its surface included within the bounding planes is taken as the measure of the angle. Polyhe'dron, solid bounded on all sides by polygons. The polygons are called faces, and the lines in which they meet are called edges of the polyhedron. The points in which two or more edges meet are called vertices of the polyhedron. The simplest polyhedron is bounded by four triangles, and is the pyramid known as a tetrahedron. POLYHYMNIA Polyhym'nia, one of the Muses; inventor of the lyre and the genius of lyric poetry; generally represented by ancient artists in a pensive attitude. Polymorphism, in biology, that condition in which different kinds of individuals appear in the same species. In the animal kingdom it has its greatest exemplification in the group of Siphonophona, where the whole colony is made up of members, all reducible to a common type, which are specialized for the functions of floating, swimming, reproduction, eating, and touch. Polyne'sia, geographical designation generally used for that part of Oceanica which lies S. of the equator and E. of the 170th meridian of E. lon.-a division based on ethnographic grounds. POMERANIA the rudest savages it sank to fetishism, as in W. and central Africa. Among the Greeks it was the apotheosis of heroic men rather than the revelation of incarnate gods. In India, springing from a pantheistic philosophy, it has been carried to the most extravagant extreme, both in respect to the number and the character of its deities. See DEISTS; PANTHEISM; THEISTS. Polyx'ena, daughter of Priam and Hecuba, beloved by Achilles. One legend relates that she was sacrificed to the manes of Achilles; another, that when he was slain she killed herself upon his tomb. Polyzo'a, name given to the lowest of the molluscoids, popularly known as sea mosses and sea mats, and also known as BRYOZOA. They form colonies, protected usually by a horny integument. They look much like assumes the horseshoe shape, while in the marine it is circular. Polyni'ces, in Grecian mythology, the firstborn son of Edipus, by his own mother, Jo-hydroids, but the separate cells of the colony casta; was banished from Thebes by his are merely connected externally, without diyounger brother, Eteocles, and fled to Argos, the polyzoa are fixed and plantlike; but the rect communication with each other. Most of where he married Argeia, daughter of Adrasfresh-water colony creeps about on a base flattus, the King of Argos. Adrastus undertook to reinstate Polynices, but the seer Amphia-water forms the crown of tentacles generally tened like the foot of a slug. In the freshraus knew that the expedition was doomed to failure, and he urged Adrastus not to undertake it. Polynices gave the necklace of Harmonia to Eriphyle, and she persuaded her husband to sanction the expedition, which meant death to himself. All the chieftains except Adrastus were slain at Thebes, Polynices falling at the hands of Eteocles, whom he slew. Pol'yp, one of the individuals of any of the fixed cœlenterata, and in earlier times of the Polyzoa and Tunicates. Polyphe'mus, in Grecian mythology, the famous Cyclops, son of Poseidon; a monster with one eye in the center of the forehead; lived in the island of Thrinacia, where he captured Odysseus on his return from Troy. Odysseus escaped by making Polyphemus drunk and burning out his eye. See GALATEA. Polyph'ony, in music, composition in several parts, vocal or instrumental, each part having an independent melodic flow of its own, but all uniting to express one musical thought or idea. This is contrast to homophony, so called, which is a simple succession of chords supporting a given melody, but without independent progression among the various accompanying parts or voices themselves. Pol'ypod, popular name given to many ferns, but properly belonging to those of the genus Polypodium, of which the U. S. has eleven species, growing on rocks, tree trunks, etc. Pol'ytheism, the distribution of the perfections and functions of the infinite God among many limited gods. It sprang out of that nature worship seen in the earliest Hindu Vedas, so soon and so generally supplanting primitive monotheism. At first, as it long remained in Chaldea and Arabia, it consisted in the worship of the elements, especially of the stars and of fire. Subsequently it took special forms from the traditions, the genius, and the relative civilization of each nationality. Among Pombal (pân-bäl'), Sebastião José de Carvalho e Mello (Marquis de), 1699-1782; Portuguese statesman; b. near Coimbra; was envoy to London, 1739-45; and later to Vienna, where he mediated between Austria and the pope. He married the Countess Daun, whose Pomegranate (pum'gran-ät), shrub, Punica granatum of the Old World (of the family Granatacea), now naturalized in most warm countries; grows finely in those parts of the called pomegranate, is of fine appearance. U. S. bordering the Gulf of Mexico; fruit, also Some of the varieties are subacid and others sweet; most of them abound in small seeds, but some are seedless. The fruit is very grateful in hot climates; flowers very fine, and sometimes double; bark used in tanning; rind is a good astringent for medicinal use. Pom'elo, or Pumelo. See SHADDOCK. Pomera'nia (German, POMMERN), province of Prussia, bordering on the Baltic; area, 11,630 sq. m.; pop. (1905) 1,684,326; capital, Stettin; on the coast are the islands of Rügen, Usedom, and Wollin; largest river, the Oder. Pomerania is one of the most level regions of POMEROY POMPEII species found in the Gulf of Mexico, and highly valued; attains a length of about 18 in. In California the name is given to a smaller fish of somewhat similar shape (Stromateus simil Germany; is rich in agricultural products, cat- | tle, and horses. The province was in the early part of the Middle Ages a principal portion of the old Wendish monarchy; governed chiefly by its own dukes, 1062-1637; frequently over-limus). run by the Poles, and came into the possession of Sweden during the Thirty Years' War. Brandenburg obtained Further Pomerania (E. of the Oder) under an old claim, and at the Peace of Stockholm, 1720, Sweden gave up to Prussia the greater portion of Hither Pomerania, but continued to hold the district between Mecklenburg, the Baltic, and the river Peene, with the island of Rügen. This she ceded to Denmark for Norway; and, 1815, it was given up to Prussia for the duchy of Lau-jects of antiquity were exhumed in sinking a enburg and 2,600,000 thalers. Pom'eroy, Seth, 1706-77; American military officer; b. Northampton, Mass.; major in the Massachusetts forces at the capture of Louisburg, 1745; lieutenant colonel of the regiment commanded by Col. Ephraim Williams, at whose death, in the battle of Lake George, Sep; tember 8, 1755, he took command and gained a complete victory over Baron Dieskau. He was a delegate to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress, 1774-75, by which he was elected a general officer, 1774, and a brigadier general, 1775; fought at Bunker Hill as a private soldier; soon afterwards appointed senior brig adier by the Continental Congress, but declined the post. Pomol'ogy, science of fruit culture; divided as concerns its application to the U. S., into viticulture, or grape growing; orcharding (divided into the cultivation of pomaceous fruits, or the pear and applelike tribes; drupaceous, or stone, fruits; citrous fruits, as oranges and lemons; nut fruits, nuciculture; and pulmaceous fruits), small-fruit culture, and cranberry culture. Pomological interests greater in the U. S. than in any other country. See FRUITS; HORTICULTURE. are Pomo'na, Roman goddess of gardens and fruit, of whose wooing by Vertumnus, the god of the revolving year, Ovid made a pretty story. Her worship was presided over by a special priest, the flamen Pomonalis, and in the country between Ardea and Ostia there was a grove, called the Pomonal, sacred to her. Pompadour (põǹ-pä-dôr'), Jeanne Antoinette Poisson (Marquise de), 1721-64; mistress of Louis XV of France; b. Paris; noted for dignity, beauty, intelligence,, and wit; married, 1741, to Le Normant d'Étoiles; became mistress of Louis XV, 1745; presented at court, and splendidly established in the royal residences at Paris, Versailles, and Fontainebleau; received several magnificent estates and an annual income of 1,500,000 fr., and for nearly twenty years exercised a decided influence on the government of France in all its branches, bringing loss and disgrace over the kingdom. On the other hand, she deserves praise for her patronage of literary men and artists. Pom'pano, name applied to several food fishes, particularly to Trachynotus carolinus, a Pompeii (pom-pā'yē), ancient city of Italy, 12 m. SE. of Naples, at the foot of Mt. Vesuvius. It was overwhelmed by the eruption of August 24, 79, which involved it with Herculaneum and Stabiæ in a common destruction. For nearly seventeen centuries afterwards the city disappears from history. A village arose on the site, but was destroyed by the eruption of 472. In 1748 several statues and other ob well. Charles III of Naples ordered extensive The architecture of Pompeii for the most part is mixed, the style, whether Greek or Roman, being frequently defective, and the attempts to unite different orders clumsy and tasteless. SE. of the forum were the great, or tragic, theater and the lesser theater, or Odeum. The former, having accommodations for about 5,000 people, stood on a slight elevation, and was never completely buried. In the SE. angle of the city was the amphitheater, an ellipse 430 ft. by 335, capable of seating 10,000 spectators; and immediately N. of the Forum were the therma, or public baths, in an elegantly adorned and well-arranged structure. The dwellings are for the most part small and low, few exceeding two stories, have little external ornamentation, and are well adapted to a people accustomed to pass most of the day in the open air. The ground fronts of many of the finest are occupied by shops. In many of the dwellings the daily life, habits, tastes, and even the thoughts of the occupants can be traced with almost positive certainty. Names have been applied to the houses of the better |